Ultra high entropy material-based non-reversible spectral signature generation via quantum dots

ABSTRACT

A physically unclonable function (PUF) device is provided, comprising an excitation source providing light for exciting quantum dots (QDs); a first layer of a material having contained therein a first random distribution of first QDs of a first type that are configured to generate a first color in response to being excited by the excitation source; a second layer of a second material having contained therein a second random distribution of second QDs of a second type that are configured to generate a second color, different from the first color, in response to being excited by the first excitation source, and a detector fixedly attached to one of the first and second layers and configured for detecting a pattern of light emitted by at least one of the first QDs and the second QDs and for providing an output indicative of the detected pattern.

FIELD

Embodiments of the disclosure generally relate to devices, systems, andmethods for self-authentication, especially using physically unclonablefunctions (PUFs). More particularly, the disclosure describesembodiments relating to devices, systems, and methods that apply andimplement spectrally diverse embedded quantum dots to providedirection-specific unique spectral signatures usable as part of a PUFstructure, to improve verification, authentication, and security ofsystems, methods, and devices.

BACKGROUND

Counterfeiting of devices and components such as integrated circuits(ICs) has been a significant challenge for the global supply chain.Counterfeit ICs can significantly impact performance, reliability, andsecurity of circuits where such counterfeit ICs are installed. Moreover,if counterfeit components are used in critical applications (e.g.,medical, aerospace, defense, vehicles, etc.), there may be catastrophicresults, ranging from loss of life and/or property to shutdown of vitalpower, communications/and/financial infrastructure/networks, to releaseof state secrets to adversaries and corporate secrets to competitors.Existing solutions to attempt to detect and address the issue ofcounterfeit components have been less than effective and can requirecustomized test equipment and other costly resources. Two primary waysto identify counterfeit components in the electronic component supplychain include detection tests (which use specific equipment, e.g., Xrays, to detect counterfeit parts already in the supply chain) andavoidance measures (which add extra circuit hardware in the circuit todetect counterfeit parts without a need for performing a detectiontest).

Another area where imposters and fraudulent devices can be a concern iswith authentication of one system or component to another system, suchas to computer systems, especially computer networks and relatedtechnologies. For example, the so-called the Internet of Things (IoT),enables many billions of “things,” including but not limited tomachines, objects, devices, smart phones, computers, smart watches,automobiles, home appliances, personal electronic assistants, cameras,speakers, tracking devices, etc., to interconnect with each other,collect data and respond to the collected data, and/or to share thedata. Because many of these devices need to connect automatically andwithout human intervention, it can be important that such devices areable to authenticate themselves, such as automatically or in response toa query or challenge. Availability of wireless network technology suchas 5G and the like are helping to further expand the ability ofnetworked devices and/or fully autonomous devices to be dynamic andmobile, enabling the provision of multiple new services and capabilitiesfor many types of users in multiple industries, including medical,military, commercial, financial, industrial, and the like IoT devices,in particular, are driving much of the growth of computer networks andcurrently account for more than 30% of all network-connected enterpriseendpoints. It is expected that there will be 41 billion IoT Devices by2027.

Thus, there is an increased need for techniques to enable authenticationof components, devices and systems, especially in an autonomous,semi-autonomous, and/or automatic manner, and preferably in a way thatis difficult for bad actors to counterfeit or copy.

SUMMARY

The following presents a simplified summary in order to provide a basicunderstanding of one or more aspects of the embodiments describedherein. This summary is not an extensive overview of all of the possibleembodiments and is neither intended to identify key or critical elementsof the embodiments, nor to delineate the scope thereof. Rather, theprimary purpose of the summary is to present some concepts of theembodiments described herein in a simplified form as a prelude to themore detailed description that is presented later.

An emerging challenge for many devices, systems, and articles ofmanufacture, is ensuring their security and authenticity. It would beadvantageous, as well, if a security, identification, and authenticationtechnique could provide a self-authentication feature that can addressboth the problem of device counterfeiting as well as authentication aspart of the IoT and other applications where self-authentication isneeded. Further, it can be especially important in some applications toprovide self-authentication mechanisms, which cannot be observed,bypassed, or falsified. Computer networks have to deal with attempts atphishing, spoofing, attack, and other unwanted intrusions. While thereare many techniques and advances that attempt to increase the securityof authenticating users (e.g., two factor authentication, biometricauthentication), increasing the security of the devices themselves,especially those that can operate autonomously, is equally important.

Establishing identity and/or authenticity of devices and systems isbecoming increasingly important to ensure security yet also is becomingincreasingly difficult, allowing rogue, imposter, and/or counterfeitdevices (whether or not directly controlled by rogue actors) to take theplace of legitimate ones. This issue is compounded even further when therogue devices are installed into other assemblies that are used tocontain and/or process, sensitive information (e.g., financialinformation, personal credentials, defense system information, medicalinformation, etc.) making it possible to attack the device itself and/orcompromise the information. Many hardware-based authenticationarrangements can be vulnerable to falsification, especially if theauthentication can be observed by others and then replicated intocounterfeit or other non-authentic devices.

In addition, there can be a need for secure and automaticself-authentication of devices and/or systems where user input of apassword or other authentication credential is inconvenient, difficult,and/or impossible, such as for ICs and other components, circuits to beinstalled into other assemblies, and devices and systems that are, forexample, embedded in a vehicle, embedded in a deployed system, etc.

A system of one or more computers can be configured to performparticular operations or actions of the aspects described herein byvirtue of having software, firmware, hardware, or a combination of theminstalled on the system that in operation causes or cause the system toperform the actions. One or more computer programs can be configured toperform particular operations or actions by virtue of includinginstructions that, when executed by data processing apparatus, cause theapparatus to perform the actions.

One general aspect includes a physically unclonable function (PUF)device. The physically unclonable function also includes a firstexcitation source configured to be externally controllable to providefirst light at a first frequency suitable for exciting quantum dots(QDs); a first layer of a first material having contained therein afirst random distribution of first QDs of a first type, disposed at afirst plurality of random locations, where the first type of QDs areconfigured to generate a first color in response to being excited by thefirst excitation source; a second layer of a second material havingcontained therein a second random distribution of second QDs of a secondtype, disposed at a second plurality of random locations, where thesecond type of QDs are configured to generate a second color in responseto being excited by the first excitation source, where the second coloris different from the first color; and a detector fixedly attached toone of the first and second layers, the detector configured fordetecting a least a first pattern of light emitted by at least one ofthe first QDs and the second QDs when excited by the first excitationsource, wherein the detector is configured for providing an outputindicative of the detected at least a first pattern of light; and wherethe excitation source is fixedly attached to one of the first and secondlayers.

Implementations may include one or more of the following features. Insome embodiments, the detected first pattern of light has a firstappearance if the detector is fixedly attached to the first layer and asecond appearance if the detector is fixedly attached to the secondlayer, where the first and second appearance are different. In someembodiments, the detected first pattern of light is unique to the PUF.In some embodiments, there is a boundary between the first layer and thesecond layer and where there is an overlap of the first plurality ofrandom locations and the second plurality of random locations, along theboundary.

In some embodiments, at least one of the first and second materials mayinclude a material that is configured to allow transmitted light toreach at least a portion of the respective QDs contained within thatrespective at least one of the first and second materials. In someembodiments, the detector and the first excitation source are bothfixedly coupled to the same one of the first and second layers. In someembodiments, the detector is fixedly coupled to a different one of thefirst and second layers than the first excitation source. In someembodiments, the PUF device may include a second excitation sourceconfigured to be externally controllable to provide second light at asecond frequency suitable for exciting QDs. In some embodiments, thefirst frequency corresponds to short-wavelength light.

In some embodiments, the PUF device further comprises a third layer of athird material having contained therein a third random distribution ofthird QDs of a third type, disposed at a third plurality of randomlocations, wherein the third type of QDs are configured to generate athird color in response to being excited by the first excitation source,wherein the third color is different than both the first color and thesecond color. In some embodiments, the first, second, and third layersare constructed and arranged so that the second layer is disposed inbetween the first and third layers, and where the first type of QD isassociated with a shorter wavelength of light than both the second typeof QD and the third type of QD. In some embodiments, the first, second,and third layers are constructed and arranged so that the second layeris disposed in between the first and third layers, and where the thirdtype of QD is associated with a longer wavelength than both the firsttype of QD and the second type of QD.

In some embodiments, the first pattern of light may include the first,second, and third colors. In some embodiments, the first pattern oflight may include both the first color and the second color. In someembodiments, the first excitation source, first layer, second layer, anddetector are constructed and arranged so that the first light and firstpattern of light are externally unrevealed. In some embodiments, thedetector is configured to determine a hash of the first pattern of lightand to communicate the hash of the first pattern of light to an externalsystem that is configured to determine if the hash of the first patternof light matches a stored hash associated with the PUF device.

One general aspect includes a method of making a physically unclonablefunction (PUF) device. The method also includes providing a first layerof a first optically clear medium; infusing a first random distributionof first quantum dots (QDs) of a first type, disposed at a firstplurality of random locations, into the first layer where the first typeof QDs are configured to generate a first color in response to beingexcited by an excitation source; partially curing the first layer suchthat at least a first portion of the first QDs are fixed into at least afirst portion of the first plurality of random positions and such thatat least a second portion of the first QDs are not in a fixed position;applying a second layer of a second optically clear medium, over thefirst layer, after partial curing; infusing a second random distributionof second quantum dots (QDs) of a second type, disposed at a secondplurality of random locations, into the second layer, where the secondtype of QDs are configured to generate a second color in response tobeing excited by the excitation source, where the second color isdifferent than the first color, where the infusion of the second randomdistribution of second QDs is configured so that at least a thirdportion of the second random distribution of second QDs are intermingledwith the second portion of the first QDs; curing the second layer to adegree sufficient to ensure that both the first QDs and second QDs aresubstantially fixed into position; operably coupling a detector and anexcitation source to the layered structure so that the excitation sourceis configured to direct light to the first and second layers and so thatthe detector is configured to detect a pattern of light that arises fromdirecting light at first and second QDs; and where the excitationsource, first layer, second layer, and detector are constructed andarranged so that the light and the pattern of light are externallyunrevealed.

Implementations may include one or more of the following features. Insome embodiments of the method, the layered structure, detector andexcitation source are constructed and arranged so that the pattern oflight has a first appearance if the detector is fixedly attached to thefirst layer and a second appearance if the detector is fixedly attachedto the second layer, where the first and second appearance aredifferent.

One general aspect includes a method of verifying an article ofmanufacture coupling to an article of manufacture a physicallyunclonable function (PUF) device that may include: a built-in excitationsource configured to be externally controllable to provide light at afirst frequency suitable for exciting quantum dots (QDs); a first layerof a first material having contained therein a first random distributionof first quantum dots (QDs) of a first type, disposed at a firstplurality of random locations, where the first type of QDs areconfigured to generate a first color in response to being excited bylight from the built-in excitation source; a second layer of a secondmaterial having contained therein a second random distribution of secondQDs of a second type, disposed at a second plurality of randomlocations, where the second type of QDs are configured to generate asecond color in response to being excited by light from the built-inexcitation source, where the second color is different from the firstcolor; and a built-in detector fixedly attached to one of the first andsecond layers, the detector configured for detecting a pattern of lightemitted by at least one of the first QDs and the second QDs in responseto the excitation source providing light, where the detector isconfigured for providing an output indicative of the detected pattern oflight; where the PUF device is configured to convert the detectedpattern of light into a second digital fingerprint; causing the built-inexcitation source providing light to excite at least a portion of thefirst random distribution of first QDs and at least a portion of thesecond random distribution of second QDs; receiving from the PUF device,in response to the built-in excitation source providing light, aspectral signature; and verifying the article of manufacture if thespectral signature satisfies a predetermined condition. In someembodiments, the PUF device is configured so that the light and thepattern of light are externally unrevealed.

Other embodiments of this aspect include corresponding computer systems,apparatus, and computer programs recorded on one or more computerstorage devices, each configured to perform the actions of the methods.

It should be appreciated that individual elements of differentembodiments described herein may be combined to form other embodimentsnot specifically set forth above. Various elements, which are describedin the context of a single embodiment, may also be provided separatelyor in any suitable sub-combination. It should also be appreciated thatother embodiments not specifically described herein are also within thescope of the claims included herein.

Details relating to these and other embodiments are described more fullyherein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The advantages and aspects of the described embodiments, as well as theembodiments themselves, will be more fully understood in conjunctionwith the following detailed description and accompanying drawings, inwhich:

FIG. 1 is an exemplary diagram of a prior art system for challenging aprior art optical PUF which has scattering particles;

FIG. 2 is an exemplary high-level block diagram of a system including asubsystem having an integrated physically unclonable device (PUF), inaccordance with one embodiment;

FIG. 3 is a first exemplary cross-section view of an embodiment of FIG.2 , showing a portion of a layered structure of the PUF of FIG. 2 ;

FIG. 4 is an exemplary exploded cross section view of the portion of thestructure shown in FIG. 3 , showing direction of light from one or moreexemplary excitation sources and co-propagating directions ofexcitation, in accordance with one embodiment;

FIG. 5 is an exemplary cross section view of an excitation and emissiondetection architecture similar to that of FIG. 3 , show direction ofexcitation and emitted light, in accordance with one embodiment;

FIG. 6A is a first exemplary exploded cross section view and graphs forthe structure of FIG. 3 , including directions of excitation andemission and showing graphs of absorption vs. wavelength, showing howspectral signature varies with absorption of excitation source;

FIG. 6B is a second exemplary exploded cross section view and graphs forthe structure of FIG. 3 , including directions of excitation andemission and showing graphs of absorption vs. wavelength, showing howspectral signature varies with absorption of excitation source;

FIG. 7 is an exemplary cross section view of the structure of FIG. 3 ,including graphs demonstrating how the spectral signature isdirectionally unique;

FIG. 8 is a graph showing a spectral signature of the structure of FIG.3 if it were altered to have its longest wavelength layer at aninnermost layer position, in accordance with one embodiment;

FIG. 9A is a first perspective exploded view of an embodiment of the PUFof FIG. 2 , with a detector on the bottom and excitation sources on thebottom, and internal reflector on top, showing excitation from a firstdirection and co-propagating directions of emissions from QDs, inaccordance with one embodiment;

FIG. 9B is a portion of a first exemplary spectral readout from thearrangement of FIG. 9A, as viewed from a detector at “bottom” of thestructure, showing a first exemplary spectral pattern associated withthe co-propagating light pattern of FIG. 9A;

FIG. 10A is a second perspective exploded view of an embodiment of thePUF of FIG. 2 , with a detector on the bottom and excitation sources onthe top, showing excitation from a first direction and co-propagatingdirections of emissions from QDs, in accordance with one embodiment;

FIG. 10B is a portion of an exemplary second spectral readout from thearrangement of FIG. 10A, as viewed from a detector at “bottom” of thestructure (detector on bottom), showing spectral pattern associated withthe co-propagating light pattern of FIG. 10A;

FIG. 11 is a third perspective exploded view an embodiment of the PUF ofFIG. 2 , with a detector on the top and excitation sources on thebottom, showing excitation from a first direction and co-propagatingdirections of emissions from QDs, in accordance with one embodiment;

FIG. 12 is a third exemplary spectral readout from the arrangement ofFIG. 11 , as viewed from a detector at the “top” of the structure(detector on top);

FIG. 13 is an exemplary illustration of a non-imaging detectingphenomenon associated with the structure of FIG. 3 , in accordance withone embodiment;

FIG. 14 is a second exemplary cross-section view of another embodimentof FIG. 2 , showing the PUF 108 of FIG. 3 implemented via embedding adevice within a dispersion medium that also has QDs embedded therein, inaccordance with one embodiment;

FIG. 15 is an example flowchart of a process for making a structuresimilar to that of FIGS. 2-14 , in accordance with one embodiment;

FIG. 16 is an example flowchart of a process for using a structuresimilar to that of FIGS. 2-14 , for authentication, in accordance withone embodiment; and

FIG. 17 is an exemplary block diagram of a computer system usable forimplementing at least some of the processes of FIGS. 2-16 , inaccordance with one embodiment.

The drawings are not to scale, emphasis instead being on illustratingthe principles and features of the disclosed embodiments. In addition,in the drawings, like reference numbers indicate like elements.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Before describing details of the particular systems, devices, andmethods, it should be observed that the concepts disclosed hereininclude but are not limited to a novel structural combination ofcomponents and circuits, and not necessarily to the particular detailedconfigurations thereof. Accordingly, the structure, methods, functions,control and arrangement of components and circuits have, for the mostpart, been illustrated in the drawings by readily understandable andsimplified block representations and schematic diagrams, in order not toobscure the disclosure with structural details which will be readilyapparent to those skilled in the art having the benefit of thedescription herein.

As described herein, at least some embodiments provide a system andmethod to establish authenticity of a device, component, and/or system.Certain embodiments provide a unique type of a hardware based PhysicalUnclonable Function (PUF). For example, certain embodiments hereininclude, but are not limited to, a PUF structure that includes layers ofquantum dots (QDs) of differing colors which are configured to beexcited by a plurality of excitation sources (e.g., arranged in anarray, but this is not limiting), where the excitation sources includeone or both of coherent excitation sources (such as laser diodes) andincoherent excitation sources (such as light emitting diodes, with astructure or package integral (contained within the package or structurethat the PUF is in) detector array that could, for example, be acomplementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) imager focal plane array(FPA). Certain embodiments herein include, but are not limited to,implementations of the above-described PUF structure (i.e., with layersof QDs of differing colors and built-in excitation source and built-indetector) that can be implemented as part of a coating or otheradaptable and flexible structure, which can for example, be applied toany type of three dimensional structure, including structures havingrounded surfaces, corners, depressions, openings, and the like.

In some embodiments herein, security of devices, systems, and/orcomponents, makes use of a challengeable Physically Unclonable Function(PUF) (defined further and more extensively herein), in a device,component, or system, to help authenticate the device, component, orsystem to another entity. In some embodiments herein, security ofdevices, systems, and/or components makes use of a PUF which isself-authenticating even independent of receiving a challenge, PUFoutput itself can serve as a means of authentication simply by virtue ofits existence (e.g., devices which are not authentic might not evencontain the PUF and thus could not produce an output that could onlyhave come from an internal, externally unrevealed PUF). In someembodiments herein, security of devices, systems, and/or componentsmakes use of a PUF whose output is used (either directly of afterdigital/mathematical processing, e.g.) for another security purpose,such as serving as a key to access another function or entity, or as aseed or other factor used to develop an encryption key. Those of skillin the art will appreciate that the unique PUF structures herein areadaptable to virtually any application for which PUFs are used. Inbrief, a PUF is a hardware based construct that takes advantage ofeither manufacturing imperfections (an inherent source of entropy indevices) or intentionally inserted, unpredictable variations, to extractor generate a unique identifier that is associated with a device. PUFshave been used to verify and detect modifications to hardware andcontrol operations based on the information the PUF provides (see, e.g.,commonly assigned U.S. Pat. No. 10,452,872, entitled “DETECTION SYSTEMFOR DETECTING CHANGES TO CIRCUITRY AND METHOD OF USING SAME,” and alsocommonly assigned U.S. Pat. No. 10,445,531, entitled, “AUTHENTICATIONSYSTEM AND METHOD,” each of which is hereby incorporated by reference).In certain embodiments herein, these PUF features and/or other featuresof PUFs are further applied extended to use the PUF as part of astructure that includes an embedded excitation source and an embeddeddetector. This is explained further below.

In some embodiments, the PUFs that are used for authentication, also canbe usable to protect information stored on the component, device, orsystem itself, and/or to protect a component, device, and/or systemitself during other processes, such as during booting. In someembodiments, as noted above, the PUF itself may be used for other systemor device functions (e.g., access to another entity or function, as aseed for an encryption key, etc.) in addition to or instead of, forauthentication.

The following detailed description is provided, in at least someexamples, using the specific context of a PUF configured for use with acomponent such as an integrated circuit, but those of skill in the artwill appreciate that this is merely exemplary and not limiting, and thatthe embodiments herein have applicability to many different kinds ofdevices, circuits, and systems that can have PUFs as part of them,especially where there needs to be controls and authentication involvedin authenticating, accessing, and/or operating components, devices, orsystems, especially without user interaction, where the component,device, or system, is configured to include an optionally challengeableand unique physically unclonable function (PUF) that is a part of thecomponent, device, or system itself. In addition, although the examplesherein are showing the PUF (especially the layered structure, describedfurther herein) as a series of linear layers, the embodiments herein arenot limited to those types of structures, but also can includestructures that are formed as part of applying coatings or other typesof layers to objects such as three dimensional objects.

For convenience, certain introductory concepts and terms used in thespecification are collected here. The following terminology definitionsmay be helpful in understanding one or more of the embodiments describedherein and should be considered in view of the descriptions herein, thecontext in which they appear, and knowledge of those of skill in theart:

“Internet of Things” (IoT) refers at least a broad range ofinternet-connected devices capable of communicating with other devicesand networks, where IoT devices can include devices that themselves canprocess data as well as devices that are only intended to gather andtransmit data elsewhere for processing. An IoT can include a system ofmultiple interrelated and/or interconnected computing devices,mechanical and digital machines, objects, animals or people that areprovided with unique identifiers (UIDs) and the ability to transfer dataover a network without requiring human-to-human or human-to-computerinteraction. Even devices implanted into humans and/or animals canenable that human/animal to be part of an IoT.

“Physical unclonable function (PUF)” at least refers to a hardware basedconstruct that takes advantage of manufacturing imperfections (aninherent source of entropy in devices) to extract or generate a uniqueidentifier that is associated with a component, wherein the uniqueidentifier can serve as a “fingerprint” for the device and, due toinherent and/or unexpected and/or intentional variations in the deviceitself (e.g., manufacturing variations, naturally occurring physicalvariations, etc.) enables the “fingerprint” to be so unique that itcannot be cloned. For example, analog physical measures such as dopinglevels or physical dimensions can give rise to different thresholdvoltages of transistors, which can be quantized into a unique value thatcan be a PUF characteristic subject to a challenge. In another example,switching delays and other effects can be sampled and quantized tocreate a digital value that can be part of a PUF's response to achallenge. These can be inherently part of manufacture and notintentionally introduced, in some examples. Due to the impracticality ofcontrolling physical parameters at this scale, the exact functionalityimplemented by a PUF is deemed unclonable. Thus, PUFs can be used as asecurity primitive to enable device-based identification, andauthentication. At the point of manufacture of a device embodying a PUF,the PUF is subjected to one or more challenges, and the response tothese challenges is taken and recorded. The challenge responseinformation can, for example, be provided as documentation to an entitythat in the future will need to challenge the PUF. The recordedchallenge information helps to ensure that, if the challenge is repeatedat any point and the PUF's expected response is verified, the devicecontaining the PUF can be concluded to be same as the one characterizedpreviously (at the time of manufacture). Advantageously, PUFs areconfigured to be robust (stable over time), unique (such that no twoPUFs are the same), easy to evaluate (to be feasibly implemented so thatchallenges can be formulated to the PUF in a usable manner for theapplication), difficult to replicate (so the PUF cannot be copied) andvery difficult or impossible to predict (so the responses cannot beguessed). A PUF also may be created or derived using one or morephysical properties of a device or physical performance of a device,where such physical properties and randomness are intentionally addedduring manufacture. That is, for a given PUF, its source of uniquenesscan be created in an explicit manner, such as through the deliberateaddition of extra manufacturing steps that add unique aspects, orcreated in an implicit/intrinsic manner, as part of the manufactureprocesses variations, as noted above.

“Optical PUF” at least refers to PUFs that make use of the properties ofemitted and/or reflected light to evaluate randomness of the objecttowards which the light is directed. Some optical PUFs work with objectsthat have explicitly introduced randomness. Some optical PUFs rely onthe interaction of visible light with a randomized microstructure. Forexample, FIG. 1 is an exemplary diagram of a prior art system 10 forchallenging a prior art optical PUF 12 (sometimes in the form of an“optical token” as shown in FIG. 1 ) which has scattering particles (notshown) embedded therein. The exemplary prior art optical PUF 12 can beformed using a transparent or optically “clear” material that is dopedwith randomly placed scattering particles, so that when light (e.g., alaser 14 at a certain orientation) is applied to the transparentmaterial, the light reaches the particles in the prior art optical PUF12. In the prior art optical PUF 12 of FIG. 1 , the camera 18 is used todetect a type of speckle image/pattern 16, that arises when a laser 14at a specific orientation, shines through the prior art optical PUF 12.In contrast, as discussed further herein in connection with FIGS. 2-14 ,the optical PUF of at least some embodiments herein, is configured togive rise to a unique spectral intensity pattern that is generated viabuilt-in excitation sources, where the unique spectral intensity patternthat is generated is captured via an integral detector array, applied ina near field non-imaging configuration, where no imaging optics areinvolved. Thus, the unique spectral intensity pattern of the embodimentsherein is captured (e.g., via focal plane/one or two-dimensionaldetector array—in this case non-imaging near-filed configuration withoutinvolving imaging optics) or otherwise measured, as described furtherherein. In the exemplary prior art optical PUF 12 of FIG. 1 , incontrast, uses an imaging camera, where the prior art optical PUF 12 ofFIG. 1 can receive a challenge 26 that consists of a specific point andangle θ of incidence of applied light, where a plurality of possiblechallenges 26 and expected responses 28, can be stored in achallenge/response database 214. The camera 18 or other sensor cancapture the resulting speckle image/pattern 16 or image, and thecaptured speckle image/pattern 16 can be converted or transformed (e.g.,by an image transformation process) into a fingerprint-like response(e.g., a “fingerprint” speckle pattern, as in fingerprint 20) that canbe further processed at a computer 22 (e.g., via known process for imageprocessing and transformation, such as a hash), into a an expectedresponse 28, that is stored, along with the challenge 26, in thechallenge/response database 214. Because the speckle fingerprint pattern20 of the prior art optical PUF 12 of FIG. 1 is unique, the hash of thatspeckle fingerprint pattern should be unique, and thus the expectedresponse 28 to the challenge, should be unique and can be used is usedto validate the prior art optical PUF 12 (and, thus, to validate anycomponent, device, or system to which the prior art optical PUF 12 isinstalled or coupled). An example of expected hash can correspond to animage of an expected response 28, as shown in FIG. 1 , or also cancorrespond to a stream of digits or bits, as will be appreciated, wherethe expected response 28 can be compared with the actual receivedresponse in the form of the speckle fingerprint pattern 20 (which arisesfrom challenging the prior art optical PUF 12), to determine if there isa match. In some variations, the prior art optical PUF 12 can be formedas a coating or token that is coupled to another article. With manyoptical PUFs of the embodiments described herein (e.g., FIGS. 2-14 ), nomicroelectronic or silicon circuitry on the PUF itself or anyPUF-carrying object is required in order to challenge the PUF. Rather,when light (e.g., via the integral excitation source, described furtherherein) is applied to the PUF embodiments described herein, theinteraction of the light with the randomly distributed scatterersproduces a spectral/intensity an image pattern resolved by the 2-D focalplane array elements in a non-imaging configuration where the spatialresolution is defined by the array element/“pixel” size/extent. This 2Darray resolved spectral/intensity data set is then unique. In addition,by incrementally modifying the position or angle of incidence of theinput light, it is possible to generate and record patterns that areuncorrelated to one another, unique to the PUF being illuminated, andhard to predict via simulation or modeling. In some variations, such asthe embodiments of the optical PUFs discussed herein, the light emitter,scattering medium, and light detectors are integrated into one enclosedpackage. The spatial-spectral-intensity pattern can be achieved bytransmission of light through the structure and/or by light entering thestructure and being reflected back.

“Challengeable PUF,” at least refers to a PUF that is capable ofaccepting an input from some kind of a source (e.g., an input from auser, sometimes referred to as a “challenge,” where the user can be anyother entity, including a human, another device, another circuit withinthe same device, a software module, a source of a signal or light,laser, etc.) and wherein the challenge generates unique responses to theinput, based on the physical fingerprint of the device. The uniquechallenge-response behavior of a particular PUF has a strong resemblanceto biometric identifiers from human beings. Using a challengeable PUF,the identity and authenticity of a device can be established, helping toeliminate any means of spoofing the device. In some embodiments herein,the challenge corresponds to a particular kind of electrical signalconfigured to stimulate a particular challengeable PUF, and the responseis a spectral pattern that is unique to a given PUF. Advantageously, incertain embodiments herein, the PUF is a so-called “strong PUF,” shallbe strong, meaning that the PUF has an exponentially largechallenge/response space. In some embodiments herein, the PUF is notrequired to be challengeable but can instead be configured to provide anoutput independent of whether or not the PUF receives an externalchallenge. For example, in some embodiments, the PUF is configured toprovide an output periodically or continually, that an external device,system, and/or component may use, to perform operations, access otherfunctions, etc.

“Strong PUF” refers at least to a PUF having an exponentially largechallenge and response space, which means that a completedetermination/measurement of all challenge-response pairs within alimited time frame (such as several days or even weeks) is effectivelyimpossible. In addition, with a strong PUF, it is difficult for anadversary to numerically predict or guess a response of the strong PUFto a randomly selected challenge, even if the adversary has knowledge ofother challenge-response pairs. Examples of strong PUFs include, but arenot limited to, an optical PUF (which relies on applying a specificlight source laser to an optical scattering object at a certain angleand incidence point, to produce a multi-bit interference pattern arisingfrom complex light scattering process inside the optical scatteringobject)

“Challenge,” at least refers to an electrical signal, such as a lightsignal, applied to or presented to a PUF to elicit a response, where theelectrical signal has characteristics that cause the PUF to respondand/or produce an output in a completely unpredictable and uniquemanner.

“Response,” at least refers to a response from the PUF that comprises aunique “signature” or fingerprint that the PUF creates responsive to/dueto a particular challenge. The type of challenge and response can, insome instances, depend on the type of PUF being used. Some PUF devicescan automatically produce a response independent of a challenge; thatis, the PUF may include or be incorporated as part of an assembly thatcontains a built in challenge configured to cause the PUF to provide theunique signature. In certain embodiments herein, the unique signature isa spectral signature.

“Helper data,” at least refers to digital data utilized by some PUFdesigns to stabilize and compensate the output of the PUF due toenvironmental effects (for example, if a PUF output varies slightly fromwhat is expected due to ambient temperature, circuit noise, etc.). Thehelper data, in some embodiments, can be generated by a helper dataalgorithm (which may or may not be part of the PUF itself, and could insome embodiments be part of a device into which a PUF is embodied), andcan serve as a kind of post-processing or error correction to the PUFoutput. Consider that, for some types of PUFs, for certain classes ofauthentication applications, a device containing a PUF is authenticatedif the regenerated response is “close enough” in Hamming distance (e.g.,t minimum number of errors that could have transformed one string ofbits into the other) the provisioned or predicted response, For thesetypes of PUFs, errors in PUF responses can be forgiven up to a certainpredetermined threshold, and still be considered a match. In contrast,for some other types of PUFs (e.g., for PUFs used in cryptographicapplications to generate keys), the “noisy” bits need to be errorcorrected, with the aid of helper bits, commonly referred to as a Helperdata. The greater the environmental variation a PUF is subject to, thegreater the possible difference (noise) between a provisioned/predictedPUF response and a re-generated (actual) response. Thus, to make use ofthe physical nature of PUFs for reliable authentication, in someembodiments, a helper data algorithm or fuzzy extractor, which can bepart of the PUF or any device in which a PUF is installed, can be usedto generate responses with appropriate entropy from noisy andnon-uniform random PUF responses. Advantageously, in certain embodimentsherein, the PUF uses helper data that contains no information or meansto reverse engineer the original PUF output that is being “helped.” Insome embodiments, this helper data is also provided to a database of PUFdata as part of PUF-specific data stored in that database.

“Quantum Dot” at least refers to a portion of matter (e.g., asemiconductor particle), often a few nanometers in size, whose excitonsare confined in all three spatial dimensions. Consequently, suchmaterials have electronic properties intermediate between those of bulksemiconductors and those of discrete molecules, and quantum dotsgenerally have optical and electronic properties that differ from largerparticles due to quantum mechanics. As such, they have the advantage ofdisplaying properties of both bulk material and individual molecules.QDs also are known as “zero-dimensional electronic structures,” and/or“colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals” and their semiconductor energylevels can be tailored by simply altering size, shape and chargepotential. These energy levels result in distinct color identificationsfor different-sized QDs. QDs may be fabricated in the visible, nearinfrared, mid-wavelength infrared (MWIR), and long wave infrared (LWIR)spectral ranges. When QDs are illuminated by ultraviolet (UV) light (orany light with photon energy that exceeds the QD bandgap energy), anelectron in the quantum dot can be excited to a state of higher energy.In the case of a semiconducting QD, this process corresponds to thetransition of an electron from the valence band to the conductance band.The excited electron of the QD can drop back into the valence bandreleasing its energy by the emission of light. The color of that QD'slight depends on the energy difference between the conductance band andthe valence band. For example, larger size QDs create a decrease inenergy band gap and emit large wavelength photons (red-shift), so canemit a red color. Small QD sizes have an increase in energy band gap andemit short wavelength light (blue shift). In between, there can be othercolors corresponding to frequencies, such as orange, green, violet,etc., as will be appreciated. In addition, this effect is demonstratedby QD solutions of different particle sizes emitting different colorswhen exposed to a UV light source. Electronic characteristics of QDs arerelated to the size and shape of the individual crystal. Generally, thesmaller the size of the crystal, the larger the band gap, the greaterthe difference in energy between the highest valence band and the lowestconduction band becomes. Therefore, more energy is needed to excite theQD, and concurrently, more energy is released when the crystal returnsto its resting state. By varying the size of the QD, the confinementenergy of the exciton can be controlled—and resultant colors can betuned. This can equate to higher frequencies of light emitted afterexcitation of the dot as the crystal size grows smaller, resulting in acolor shift from red (large size, low frequency) to blue (small size,high frequency) in the light emitted. In addition to such tuning,another advantage with QDs is that the confinement energy of the excitoncan be controlled based on size. Exemplary applications of QDs aredescribed further herein in the following commonly assigned U.S.Patents, which are all hereby incorporated by reference:

-   -   U.S. Pat. No. 7,502,166 (“Optical sight having obscured reticle        illumination”);    -   U.S. Pat. No. 7,916,065 (“Countermeasure system and method using        quantum dots”), which shares an inventor in common with the        present disclosure;    -   U.S. Pat. No. 9,310,516 (“Quantum dot-based identification,        location and marking”);    -   U.S. Pat. No. 8,213,473 (“Laser based on quantum dot activated        media”), which also shares an inventor in common with the        present disclosure;    -   U.S. Pat. No. 10,711,188 (“Process for producing quantum dots        having broadened optical emission”), which also shares an        inventor in common with the present disclosure;

“Quantum-Dot light emitter” (also sometimes termed “nano-dot”) at leastrefers to a nanophosphor material formed of a mass of particles ofphosphorescent material having particle sizes much smaller than thewavelength of visible light. These quantum-dot light emitters areexcited by light of an excitation wavelength and emit light of an outputwavelength. For example, quantum-dot light emitters 86 include materialssuch as cadmium sulfide, cadmium telluride, silicon, and germanium,processed with a surfactant to a very small nano-dot size much smallerthan the wavelength of visible light, and encapsulated. Quantum dotlight emitters are discussed further in commonly assigned, which ishereby incorporated by reference.

Unless specifically stated otherwise, those of skill in the art willappreciate that, throughout the present detailed description,discussions utilizing terms such as “opening”, “configuring,”“receiving,”, “detecting,” “retrieving,” “converting”, “providing,”,“storing,” “checking”, “uploading”, “sending,”, “determining”,“reading”, “loading”, “overriding”, “writing”, “creating”, “including”,“generating”, “associating”, and “arranging”, and the like, refer to theactions and processes of a computer system or similar electroniccomputing device. The computer system or similar electronic computingdevice manipulates and transforms data represented as physical(electronic) quantities within the computer system's registers andmemories into other data similarly represented as physical quantitieswithin the computer system memories or registers or other suchinformation storage, transmission, or display devices. The disclosedembodiments are also well suited to the use of other computer systemssuch as, for example, optical and mechanical computers. Additionally, itshould be understood that in the embodiments disclosed herein, one ormore of the steps can be performed manually.

Before describing in detail the particular improved systems, devices,and methods, it should be observed that the concepts disclosed hereininclude but are not limited to a novel structural combination ofsoftware, components, and/or circuits, and not necessarily to theparticular detailed configurations thereof. Accordingly, the structure,methods, functions, control and arrangement of components and circuitshave, for the most part, been illustrated in the drawings by readilyunderstandable and simplified block representations and schematicdiagrams, in order not to obscure the disclosure with structural detailswhich will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art having thebenefit of the description herein.

Given the rapid increase of fully-autonomous devices, such as IoT, thereexists a critical need for self-contained, low size, weight, power, andcost (SWaP-C) self-authentication mechanisms that cannot be observed,bypassed, or falsified by an adversary. However, currently availableself-contained, autonomous, self-authentication devices do not addressthese emerging needs. PUFs, as noted above, can serve as securityprimitives to generate a unique fingerprint/signature for use inhardware self-authentication and identification are needed. Known PUFsthat are suitable for use in low SWaP-C applications, are becomingincreasingly able to be observed and falsified by modern adversaries,because many implementations use electrical implementations havingrelatively low bit density. Thus, to provide truly “unattainable”falsification, other approaches are needed, such as multi-dimensional,optical, spectral, heterogeneous randomized physically observablefeatures with very high bit densities (e.g., bit densities that areorders of magnitude higher as compared to current electrical approaches)bit densities are the desired goal to provide for truly unattainablefalsification.

One approach that has been used for PUFs with high bit density has beenoptical PUFs, such as optical modalities usingfluorescent/phosphorescent particles (e.g., so-called “phosphor PUFs),which have been used as highly disordered entropy sources having highbit density. However, optical PUFS that use fluorescent/phosphorescentparticles can have various shortcomings. For example, optical PUFS thatuse fluorescent/phosphorescent particles can require use of externalimaging as part of verification, which renders them less than desirablefor autonomous, self-contained, self-authentication purposes thatrequire inaccessibility by external sources. In addition, optical PUFSthat use fluorescent/phosphorescent particles are spectrallyhomogeneous, having no spatial depth or spectral diversity, and thus aretractable for adversaries to directly observe externally. Further, someoptical PUFS that use fluorescent/phosphorescent particles utilizematerials that are unstable under thermal and other environmentalperturbations. Another type of optical PUF, that uses nano-technologyfeatures, has not been able to be used in a direction-specific way,where the signature is unique based on being challenged only from aspecific direction, where there is an ability to precisely control thedirection of excitation.

Thus, both electrical PUFS and some types of optical PUFS (e.g., thosethat use fluorescent/phosphorescent particles) do not have enough highentropy/high bit density and are vulnerable to attack and areinsufficiently robust for next generation autonomous device protection.

Another challenge with some optical PUFs can be the process of sendingor applying challenges and measuring responses. For at least some knownoptical PUF implementations, a somewhat precise validation arrangement(e.g., the arrangement, with specific angles of laser light as shown inthe prior art configuration of FIG. 1 ) may be needed to send challengesto the PUF (e.g., apply light to the PUF) and receive responses from thePUF, to be able to validate the image pattern. For example, a validationsystem for optical PUFs that use scatterers may need to establishexactly the same relative positioning of the structure containing thescattering particles, the positioning of the light or other excitationsource that is shined into the optical PUF (e.g., laser beam orincoherent light such as an LED), and the positioning of the opticalsensor (e.g., charge-coupled device camera), for every read-out of theoptical PUF, to ensure that the image pattern that is generated, issufficiently identical to an expected or previously recorded, imagepattern, to ensure that the PUF can be validated.

In certain embodiments, as described herein, an arrangement is providedto provide a PUF feature that employs quantum dot (QD) nanoparticlesthat are spectrally diverse (i.e., having varying bandgaps), where theQDs are configured in in a highly inhomogeneous (non-uniform), randomdistribution suspended in an optically transparent matrix/host, andwherein the challenges of validation are at least partially overcome byincluding built in excitation sources and sensors. In certainembodiments, this configuration provides for a highly random spatialdistribution/entropy that is commensurate to very high bit densities. Inaddition, in certain embodiments, this configuration provides foroptical-depth-specific absorption regions. This results in highly uniquedirection specific spectral signatures. The very high molar absorptioncoefficient of QDs ensures ample doping density variability in a thinlow profile sub-layer geometry, well under-mm scale. In certainembodiments, as described further herein, this spatially highlyinhomogeneous architecture provides for asymmetric optical transferfunctions that are configured to prevent observation via external means.In certain embodiments, the asymmetric optical transfer function is anon-reversible function that can serve as a PUF and is enabled by uniquedistribution and strategic layered ordering of QDs, as described furtherherein.

FIG. 2 is an exemplary high-level block diagram of a system 100 thatshows multiple applications for the PUF structures described herein. Thesystem 100 includes a subsystem 106 having an integrated physicallyunclonable device (PUF) 108, in accordance with one embodiment. Thesubsystem 106 (which contains PUF 108), in certain embodiments, isconfigured to provide a challengeable PUF that is responsive to(optional) challenge system 103 (discussed further below). In certainembodiments, the subsystem 106 is configured to provide a PUF that canprovide an output usable by an (optional) PUF enabled entity 105, whichcan include, in certain embodiments, a system, device, component,function, or any other entity that makes use of output from the PUF(explained further herein in connection with FIG. 16 ). The optionalchallenge system 103 of FIG. 2 includes a processor 102 having storage104 and which is in operable communication with a subsystem 106 (whichcan, for example, be any type of a system, device, component, structure,or any article of manufacture) having therein a self-contained,integrated PUF 108. In certain embodiments, the PUF 108 includes alayered structure 110, an excitation source 112, and a detector 114.Optionally, in certain embodiments, the PUF 108 can include a support120 (e.g., a substrate) for the layered structure 110, excitation source112, and/or detector 114. In other embodiments, the support 120 can bepart of the subsystem 106 itself and also may include the excitationsource 112 and/or detector 114. For example, in some embodiments, thesupport 120 can be an integrated circuit.

Optionally, in certain embodiments, the PUF 108 includes a detectorprotective window 122, configured to protect the detector 114 (e.g., ifthe detector 114 is implemented as a CMOS array, the detector protectivewindow 122 can comprise a layer of a clear protective material whichstill permits operation of the detector while protecting it duringmanufacture and operation). Optionally, in certain embodiments, the PUF108 includes an internal reflector 124 which is configured to re-directunabsorbed light back into the layered structure 110; the internalreflector 124, in certain embodiments, also is configured to providemechanical and electrical protection for the layered structure 110.

FIG. 2 is intended to show, at a very high level, a subsystem 106embodying the high-entropy, self-contained, externally unrevealed PUF108 that is discussed further herein in connection with FIGS. 3-17 ,along with two optional, possible applications for the PUF 108. Thestorage 104 of challenge system 103 includes, in certain embodiments, adatabase of PUF data 118 that is associated with potential expectedresponses from the PUF 108 of the subsystem 106. For example, thedatabase of PUF data 118, in certain embodiments, can include responsesto challenges that the processor 102 can pose to the PUF 108 and towhich the PUF 108 will provide unique responses. In certain embodiments,the database of PUF data 118 can store one or more digital fingerprintsassociated with fielded PUF devices, such as PUF devices that areconfigured for coupling to or being installed into, various articles ofmanufacture, including but not limited to semiconductor chips. Incertain embodiments, the database of PUF data 118 can includeinformation relating to helper data (as described above), if any,associated with a PUF 108 of subsystem 106. Helper data may not berequired or used in all embodiments, as will be appreciated. The storage164, in certain embodiments, is implemented using any type of storagefor computing devices, including but not limited to disk drives, asolid-state drives, a flash drives, a removable media drives, etc. Theprocessor 102 is in operable communication with the subsystem 106, wherethe operable communications can be via any type of communication, be itwired or wireless, over the cloud, etc., so long as the communicationsare able to ensure that the processor 102 is able to evaluate an outputfrom the PUF 108.

The processor 102 is configured to perform computational tasks relatedto at least one of sending challenges to and receiving responses from,the subsystem 106, via communications 116. In certain embodiments, theprocessor 102 can be implemented in various ways known in the art, suchas a microprocessor, field-programmable gate array (FPGA), complexprogrammable logic device (CPLD), system on a chip (SOC), or any deviceor system configured for performing computing tasks Advantageously, useof a single processor, such as processor 102, in certain embodiments,performs both sending challenges and receiving responses, but this isnot required. For example, in some embodiments, the processor 102 isconfigured to send a challenge to the PUF 108 and receive a challengeresponse, via communications 116. In a further example, in someembodiments, a system 100 may have more than one processor 102, where afirst processor sends a challenge (or even a command for another system,including one at the subsystem 106, to initiate a challenge), and asecond processor receives the response to the challenge, and the firstand second processors in such an arrangement may or may not need to bein operable communication with each other. In some embodiments, aprocessor 102 may be configured to only receive responses from the PUF108, wherein the PUF 108 may be configured to continually orperiodically output its unique digital fingerprint during operation, sothat no sending of challenges is necessary.

The challenge response (which can be part of communication 116) may bein the form of a digital readout, spectral image,spatial-spectral-intensity image pattern, or other output from detector114. In addition, in certain embodiments, the PUF output 117 likewisemay be in the form of a digital readout, spectral image,spatial-spectral-intensity image pattern, output from detector 114, oreven a signal that is indicative about information relating to the PUF,such as whether or not a PUF output even exists. Depending on thesubsystem 106 in which a PUF 108 is installed, the subsystem 106 mayperform processing on the challenge response before sending it to theprocessor 102 or may perform processing on the PUF output 117 before itis used by the PUF enabled entity 105. For example, the subsystem 106may encrypt the challenge response or PUF output (or may even use thePUF output as part of generating an encryption key), may convert it froma spectral image to a string of characters or other output such as ahash, a digital fingerprint, etc. The subsystem 106, in certainembodiments, may include the challenge response or PUF output “as is” or“as encrypted” as part of another communication along with otherinformation, etc. In some embodiments, to compensate for possibleenvironmental conditions at the PUF 108, the subsystem 106 may utilizehelper data (as defined previously) for either a challenge response or aPUF output. In certain embodiments, the processor 102, upon receivingthe challenge response, is configured to evaluate whether the responsefrom the PUF 108 is correct, by performing certain computations (ifnecessary) and then comparing either the challenge response from the PUF(whether as received or as further processed) with data stored in thedatabase of PUF data 118. In certain embodiments, the PUF enabled entity105, upon receiving the PUF output, will be enabled or not, or mayperform certain functions, depending on the PUF output (includingwhether or not it exists).

The database of PUF data 118, in certain embodiments, is determined,received, provided and/or otherwise obtained as part of configuring thesystem 100. In certain embodiments, database of PUF data 118 includesnot only expected data from the PUF, but also information about thehelper data for the PUF 108 There are a number of ways to obtain thisdata, as will be appreciated. For example, at the time a device (or setof devices) embodying or including the PUF 108 is manufactured, themanufacturer can subject the PUF 108 to one or more types of challengesand then record the response to the challenges as exemplarycharacteristics of that PUF 108, to be saved as PUF data for thedatabase of PUF data 118. The manufacturer can provide this informationas characteristic data to one or both of the manufacturer of the PUF 108an/or of the subsystem 106, at the time the PUF 108 is installed into oris made accessible to the subsystem 106. For example, if the PUF 108 isembodied into or coupled to an electronic component or circuit board,information or paperwork that accompanies the component or circuitboard, when it is shipped, may include information relating to theexpected responses from the PUF 108.

Once the particular expected response data for the PUF 108 is obtaineddetermined and/or received, the expected response data (including, incertain embodiments, helper data, digital fingerprints, hashes, etc.)can be stored in the database of PUF data 118. Optionally, in certainembodiments, information relating to the challenge that produced theexpected response data, also can be stored along with the expectedresponse data. Once stored, it can be known that if a challenge isperformed that repeats conditions present when the unique data for thePUF 108 (i.e., spectral signature) was created, including theparticulars on which excitation sources 112 were activated, theirangles, etc., if the response to that challenge matches (to whateverdegree defined by a given application, e.g., within a Hamming distance),then there is reasonable certainty that the PUF 108 being checked, thatcreated the response to the challenge, is the same PUF 108 that was usedto generate the expected response.

Reference is now made to FIGS. 3 and 4 , which both show cross sectionsof the PUF 108 of FIG. 2 , showing certain features of thoseembodiments, and also to FIG. 5 , which is an exemplary cross sectionview of an excitation and emission detection architecture similar tothat of FIG. 3 , showing direction of excitation and emitted light, inaccordance with one embodiment. In particular, FIG. 3 is a firstexemplary cross-section view 200 of an embodiment of the PUF 108 of FIG.2 , including a view of a portion of a layered structure 110 of the PUFof FIG. 2 and also showing its connection to the optional support 120,optional detector protective window 122, and optional internal reflector124, where the PUF 108 includes built-in excitation sources 112 andbuilt-in detector 114. FIG. 4 is an exemplary exploded cross sectionview of the portion of the layered structure 110 shown in FIG. 3 ,showing directions of propagating light via arrows 412, 414, 416, 418 asa result of the QDs being impinged on by light from one or moreexemplary excitation sources (the excitation sources 112, detector 114,detector protection window 122, and internal reflector 124 are not shownin FIG. 4 , for clarity, but are similar in location and arrangement tothose illustrated in FIGS. 3 and 5 ).

Referring still to FIGS. 3-5 , the layered structure 110, having QDs ofvarying exciton/band gaps (as described further below), helps to providefor a non-reversible and unidirectional spectral signature of the PUF108, as will be explained further herein. One or more of the excitationsources 112 can be activated to shine a light through the layeredstructure 110. Note that the detector protective window 122, as shown inthe embodiments of FIGS. 3 and 5 , is configured, in certainembodiments, to also be disposed over the excitation sources 112, but itis not required that the detector protective window 122 also cover theexcitation sources 112. Advantageously, if the detector protectivewindow 122 covers the excitation sources 112, it is configured to besufficiently optically clear so as to be able to transmit the excitationitself, without substantial losses, as will be understood. Optionally,one or more of the excitation sources 112 can further be configured toshine light into the layered structure in a particular direction whereinthe light from the excitation source will get absorbed by all layers 202with decreasing intensity depending on the overall attention and opticaldensity of the conglomerate (i.e., the total number and path of QDs thatthe light from the excitation source hits). As the QDs are hit by lightfrom the excitation source 112, the QD will emit (scatter) light of acorresponding color, in multiple directions, and the scattered lightalso interacts with other QDs, which also scatter that light as well aslight that impinges on the QDs from one or more of the excitationsources 112, as will be understood. The detector 114 is configured todetect the patterns and colors of emitted light as those patterns etc.are reflected and/or scattered back towards the detector 114. In someembodiments, the detector 114 corresponds to a CMOS detector array. Insome embodiments, the detector 114 is a device that can include areadout integrated circuit (ROIC). In addition, in some embodiments, thedetector can detect patterns and colors even for QDs that are relativelydistant from the detector 114, because, in the arrangement of FIG. 3 ,the QDs have an interdependence with each other and light emitted fromcertain QDs can impact light emitted from other QDs, and thisinterdependence can exist throughout a substantial portion of the PUF108, even if the PUF 108 is part of a structure or coating formed on athree-dimensional object, such that certain QDs may not be in directalignment with detector 114. For example, in certain embodiments, evenif the PUF structure wraps around a corner, with a certain portion ofquantum dots separated from and at an angle away from the detector 114,because of the interdependence of the QDs and the impact emitted lighthas from QDs, the detector would still be able to see patterns that areimpacted by more distant QDs. This also is illustrated in FIG. 14 ,described further herein.

For example, FIG. 5 is an exemplary cross-section view 500 of anexcitation and emission detection architecture similar to that of FIG. 3, show direction of excitation and emitted light, in accordance with oneembodiment. FIG. 5 helps to illustrate the concepts of at least oneembodiment. In the example embodiment of FIG. 5 , the cross-section view500 includes a layer corresponding to the detector protective window 122of FIG. 2 . The detector protective window 122, in certain embodiments,is a layer of a transparent material (e.g., a glass or polymer)configured to provide a protective window for the detector array 114(which can, in certain embodiments, be a CMOS detector array). Incertain embodiments, the support structure 120 and detector protectivewindow 122 optionally can be configured around the excitation source(s)112 and the detector array 114 as a waveguide excitation coupler, aswill be understood. In certain embodiments, as shown in FIG. 5 but notdepicted in FIGS. 2 and 3 (for clarity), the PUF 108 also includes areflector layer

In the example embodiment of FIG. 5 , the excitation sources 112 s-112 cemit short wavelength excitation light 504, which can take on, incertain embodiments, a spatially diverging emission profile representedby the dotted arrows 502 a, 502 b, 502 c, in the example of excitationsource 112 a. In response, the QDs (which are shown as the multiplesmall dots in FIG. 5 , with varying patterns denoting colors, as shownby the key of FIG. 5 . As an example, some of the QDs labeled, e.g.,green QD dot 206 a, but all QDs having the pattern that matches the keyare intended to be that respective color of QD. The QD dots produceemission of lights, such as the various fluorescence emissions 520, 522,524, 526, which 506, which are generally directed in direction 506, tobe detected by the elements 516 of a detector 114. For example, in someembodiments, as shown in FIG. 5 , the detector array 114 is a CMOSdetector array having a plurality of elements 516.

In certain embodiments, when one or more the excitation sources 112 arecontrolled to create an excitation, the respective excitations may formone or more respective “light cones” (as will be understood in the art)that are emitted to the QDs inside the layered structure 110. Inresponse, the QDs being impinged on emit light in one or moredirections, including, in some embodiments, in a respective conicalshape. The excitation provided by the excitation sources 112 is allinternal to the QD, as are the responses, which are detected by thebuilt in detector 114. In certain embodiments, for differentPUF-challenges, different and independent regions of the structures areilluminated predominantly (e.g., by different excitation sources 112)and cause different respective responses. This independence ofstimulation, combined with the uniqueness of the excitation, detecting,and scattering within, and aforementioned interdependence of the QDs,complicates or even directly prevents straightforward forms of modelingattacks. In addition, the vast number of different possibleconfigurations of excitation of excitation sources 112 helps to reducethe change that a given PUF output spectra can be modeled by some simpleform of superposition of known signals. In addition, the internalreflector 124, as noted above, helps as well to serve as a coverstructure that to both conceal the PUF spectra therein and to provide afurther element to reflect light within the layered structure 110. Thisis also explained further below, particularly in connection with thedescription of graphs 632-638 of FIG. 4 . In certain embodiments, theinternal reflector 124 can be made of a metallic material, such as gold.

In certain embodiments, the multiple directions of emitted lightcombine, at different layers, as the light from a colored QD in onelayer emits light that potentially (depending on wavelength) be added toexcitations from previous layers or can block excitation from otherlayers (depending on wavelength). Specifically, by strategicallylayering different QDs of varying band gaps, which have differingresponses to various wavelengths of light, the complexity of theresulting PUF “fingerprint” is increased over existing optical PUFS,and, further, this creates an artificially engineered, non-reversibleoptical transfer function (i.e., will look different depending on whichside it is viewed from), which can be extremely difficult to duplicateand is able to provide a full sphere (471 steridians) of protection.

Referring still to FIGS. 3-5 , FIG. 3 illustrates, for explanatorypurposes and by way of example, a layered structure 110 having adelineation of layers 202 that shows defined boundaries. As shown inFIGS. 3-4 , although the layers 202 a-202 d have an illustrateddemarcation or boundary (e.g., boundary 220 a) between layers 101, incertain embodiments, the boundary is substantially invisible and is nota strict or clear cut delineation, but rather is somewhat blurred orloosely defined, in the form of a transition zone, with some mixingbetween the QDs of one type (first band gap, first color, first sizee.g.) in one layer and the QDs of another type (second band gap, secondcolor, second size, e.g.) in another layer. This enables a gradual orrandom transition between a first region containing a randomdistribution of mostly QDs of a first type and a second regioncontaining a random distribution of mostly QDs of a second type. A layer202 can be combined with as many further layers 202 as desired.

The layered structure 110, in the example embodiment of FIGS. 3-4 ,shows four layers: 202 a, 202 b, 202 c, 202 d, each with a differenttype of QD, but this is exemplary and not limiting. In certainembodiments, the layers 202 are made of a material, through which thelight passes, which is sufficiently optically clear and/or transparentto allow light from the excitation source 112, to pass through therespective layer 202, so as to create a desired PUF spectra (this isalso further discussed herein in connection with FIGS. 6A-15 ). In someembodiments, it may be desirable to have a layer 202 be made of amaterial that is not necessarily completely optically “clear,” whichalso serves another purpose for the structure (e.g., to provideconductivity, insulation, etc.), so long as at least enough light isable to be emitted to be picked up by the detector 114.

In certain embodiments, usable materials for the layer include, but arenot limited to, organic materials able to transmit light, e.g.,combinations of one or more materials, including but not limited to acombination of one or more hybrid polymer mixes, various polymers and/ortransparent polymers (such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP),polycarbonate (PC), or polymethylacrylate (PMA), polymethylmethacrylate(PMMA), cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB) silicone, polyvinylchloride(PVC), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), andthe like. The organic light transmissive materials also may includepolymer matrix materials, polymer films, epoxies, resins etc. The layerin some embodiments may be formed of an inorganic material such asglass, crystal, quartz, and any optically transparent inorganiccomposite materials. In further embodiments, a layer may comprise anencapsulant material or a coating. In further embodiments, a layer maycomprise a material that is conductive or non-conductive, depending onthe needs of the application. Note as well that the material for layersmay be selected based on compatibility with the material used for theQDs, as is understood in the art. In some embodiments, not all layers202 are made from the same material. In addition, the QDs themselves maybe disposed or encapsulated in a first polymer or other material, whichis then applied to a second polymer or other material, to form the layer202. As noted previously, the entire PUF 108 can be formed on top of orall around another structure, such as a three-dimensional structure,e.g., as a coating, film, encapsulant, etc.

Depending on the application, the layers 202 can be formed of specific,substantially transparent materials that also may serve other purposesin the subsystem 106 and/or meet specific environmental or operationalrequirements. For example, in some embodiments, the layers 202 can bepart of an encapsulation material or coating for a semiconductor deviceor a circuit board or any other object. In some embodiments, layers 202can be part of a heat transfer device or coating. In some embodiments,the layers 202 can be part of an adhesive. In some embodiments, one ormore of the layers can provide electrical conductivity or electricalinsulation. Those of skill in the art will appreciate that many possiblematerials are usable materials in which to disperse the plurality ofrandom QDs 204-210. However, in at least some embodiments, it isimportant that the layers 202 are part of a layered structure 110 thatforms a PUF 108 whose actual spectral emission, is not able to bedetected externally, so this may mean that an entire PUF 108 isencapsulated, housed, or otherwise enclosed or covered (e.g., viaaforementioned internal reflector 124), in another structure (not shown)advantageously a tamper evident type of structure, where attempts to getinside and analyze the PUF, can result in a destruction or otherwiserendering inoperable, of the unique aspects of the PUF.

For example, in certain embodiments, a PUF 108 can be contained within atamper evident case or housing that is fixedly attached to the PUF 108,such that any opening of the tamper evident case or housing, breaksapart the PUF 108. In another example, the PUF 108 is configured to bepart of or within an integrated circuit chip. It should be understood,as well, that embodiments that consist of a PUF 108 that comprises justthe support 120, one or more excitation source(s) 112, detector 114, andlayered structure 110, are by definition externally unrevealed, becauseapplying an external optical stimulus cannot provide a true, matchingoptical signature from the PUF 108, since that signature can only beenabled by internal stimulation/excitation via the built in excitationsource(s) 112.

In certain embodiments, the layers 202 are made of a material that canbe partially cured or hardened as first portions of a first QDs of afirst bandgap/color are injected or applied (this process is discussedfurther herein in connection with FIG. 15 ). Then a second layer 202 bcan be applied on top of the first layer 202 a, the second layer 202 bbeing injected with a second portion of randomly dispersed second QDshaving a second bandgap/color different than the first bandgap/color. Asnoted above, in some embodiments, the delineation between any twolayers, advantageously, is “blurry” vs being precise, so that a portionof the first QD and second QD will intermix along the boundary betweenlayers, as shown in FIG. 3 . For example, referring to FIG. 3 , it canbe seen along the boundary 220 a, between layer 202 b and layer 202 a,that “green” QDs 206 a, 206 b, actually lie within layer 202 a (which isprimarily a layer of “blue” QDs 204, as indicated by the letter “B” inthe respective dot), although most of the layer of “green” QDs 206 (asindicted by the letter “C” in the respective dot) are in layer 202 b.Similar, there is at least one blue dot 204 b that has a location alongthe boundary 220 a between layers 202 b and 202 a.

In the layered structure 110 of FIG. 3 , each layer 202 has a randomlypositioned portion of quantum dots (QDs) 204, 206, 208, 210 of varyingband gaps, in accordance with one embodiment. Note that FIG. 5 ,discussed elsewhere herein, shows the same layered structure 110, butwithout showing the formal delineation or boundary of layers 202. In atleast some embodiments, the boundaries between layers are notnecessarily visible or distinct; rather, the boundary (e.g., boundary220 a of FIG. 3 ) is there to show that, in certain embodiments, thereare essentially different subsections or transition areas in the overalllayered structure 110, where the subsections or areas are eachconfigured to have, predominantly, a certain respective type and colorof QD that will predominantly be the same type of QD (same bandgap/color. This “blurry” boundary, in certain embodiments, also helps toimprove the uniqueness and security of the spectral pattern, especiallybecause the random mixing of the varying QD dots in the transitionzone/boundary, will be very hard to duplicate.

In addition, although the layers 202 are illustrated in FIGS. 3-4 asbeing substantially linear and horizontal, that is not intended to belimiting. As will be appreciated, the sections/layers 202 containingrespective colors of plural dots, also could be vertical, diagonal,etc., and also could be arranged in further patterns (e.g., a singlehorizontal layer could be half one color QD, half the other), etc. Thenon-imaging near field CMOS detector configuration ensures a wideoverlap zone via the avalanche effect of spectral/intensity weightedcontributions well beyond the physical boundary for this embodimentconfiguration example. The sections/layers 202 also could have varyingboundaries 220 a that are effectively more like transition zones thatcan have any shape and need not be linear as depicted in FIGS. 3-4 .

In the layered structure 110 of FIGS. 3-4 , for layers 202 a-202 b, eachlayer 202 includes therein respective QDs (in FIG. 3 all the portions ofQDs are shown as how they appear without the delineation of FIG. 3 ).For example, in FIGS. 3-4 there are blue QDs 204 (for layer 202 a),green QDs 206 (for layer 202 b), orange QDs 208 (for layer 202 c), andred QDs 220 (for layer 202 d). Thus, the layered structure 110 haslayers with QDs of varying band gaps (i.e., various colors), inaccordance with one embodiment, but the particular arrangement andcolors are not limiting. In certain embodiments, this layered structure110 can be formed on a support 120 (which for simplicity is shown onlyin FIG. 3 ), where the support 120 can correspond to any device,structure, or article of manufacture able to support the layers 202. Incertain embodiments, the layers 202 and support 120 are further toppedwith a cover layer, such as internal reflector 124 (as shown in FIGS. 3and 5 , but, for clarity, not depicted in FIG. 4 ).

In some embodiments, the support 120 can be implemented using asubstrate or a semiconductor integrated circuit, etc. In someembodiments, the support 120 corresponds to a side or portion of anothersubsystem, device or article of manufacture, such as an interior housingof a system, a heat dissipation device, an area of a circuit board, etc.Advantageously, the layered structure 110 is further configured on thesupport 120 so that its PUF feature is externally unrevealed. In certainembodiments, the support 120 has embedded or installed therein one ormore excitation sources 112 a, 112 b, 112 c, and a detector 114 (in someembodiments, the excitation source(s) 112 and/or the detector 114 can beseparate from the support 120).

In certain embodiments, the excitation source 112 is a light emittingdiode (LED), where the spectral output of the LED can be selected basedon the particular application. In certain embodiments, the LED isconfigured to have short wavelength excitation light. Presently, LEDsare commercially available with single-element output power of about 5mW, operating in a range of about 275 to 950 nm, and such LEDs can betailored, for use as an excitation source 112 in at least someembodiments herein, based on the desired spectral pattern and QDs usedin the structure. As is understood, the diverse spectral output affordedby LEDs makes it possible to select an individual diode light source tosupply the optimum excitation wavelength band usable for exciting QDs,spanning the ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared regions.

In certain embodiments, LEDs used for the excitation source(s) can beselected to substantially match the range of QDs in the layers, or canbe selected to match certain QDs in certain layers, or can be selectedto vary, so that certain LEDs can be configured for excitation atdifferent types, enabling greater ease in cycling excitation source 112on and off, as well as to rapidly select specific wavelengths viaselection of particular LED excitation sources 112. This also increasesthe realm of possible challenges and responses and thus improves thesecurity offered by the PUF 108. In certain embodiments, the LEDS can bepart of an LED chip containing a plurality of LEDs. In certainembodiments, the LEDs are micro-light-emitting diodes (μ-LEDs). As willbe appreciated by those of skill in the art, if an LED excitation source112 is selected that is associated with a wavelength than longer thanmost and/or longer than that for the dots, then there may be a very lowexcitation efficiency and commensurate low emission signals. Thus, forthe most advantageous embodiments, LEDs and QDs can be selected to meeta desired efficiency.

In certain embodiments, the location of the excitation sources 112 canbe varied within the support 120, so that the different excitationsources 112 are configured to emit light at different angles, whichfurther alters the patterns and colors of emitted light from the QDs. Inaddition, in some embodiments, the support 120 can be located in otherplaces along the perimeter of the layered structure 110 and/or may havea different shape (e.g., an “L” shape, etc.) to enable the excitationsource 112 to emit light from other places other than the “bottom” oflayered structure 110 (e.g., see FIG. 14 herein, wherein excitationsources 112 are located along a side of the layered structure 110). Inaddition, because the excitation source(s) 112 and the detector 114 arefixed within the support structure (i.e., “built in” to the PUF 108), incertain embodiments, the variation in the pattern that can arise witharrangements such as that of FIG. 1 , can be avoided, because theexcitation source and the detector are in substantially fixed positions.

As will be appreciated, in some embodiments, the excitation sources 112can be selectively controlled/configured to emit light or not emitlight, in a predetermined pattern, which will lead to further variationsin light emitted from the QDs that receive the light from the excitationsource, where the variation in source and/or direction of excitationsources 112, helps to further ensure that the spectral pattern will beunique and very difficult to copy. In addition, in certain embodiments,different excitation sources 112 can be configured to emit at differentwavelengths. The unique distribution and strategic layered ordering ofthe QDs, and the unique excitation results in a unique, directionalspectral signature that arises from the pattern of QDs that producelight in response to the excitation (at specific wavelengths) by theexcitation source 112. This pattern is captured by detector 114, whichprovides the information as a form of a unique optical transferfunction, to the processor 102, which can then either directly compareor (optionally) perform additional processing, to enable a comparison ofthe unique optical transfer function to a stored value, to determinewhether the PUF 108 matches.

Referring again to FIGS. 3 and 4 , because the distribution andarrangement of QDs in the layers is unique, the emitted spectral patternfrom those QDs, in response to light from excitation source(s) 112, alsowill be unique and also directional (as discussed further herein inconnection with FIGS. 6A-14 ). By “directional” it is meant that thepattern viewed and detected by detector 114, from one direction orperspective will be different than the pattern or perspective if thatdetector 114 was located at a different perspective. In addition,because the QDs in different layers are configured to be QDs that emitlight differently based on the wavelength of the excitation source oflight, the resulting spectra will have varying spectral maps, both incolor and in intensity, depending on which direction they are excitedfrom, how much light from the excitation source can reach the layer, howmuch is attenuated, how much is able to be absorbed by the QDs, thewavelength of the excitation, and then what is able to be picked up bythe detector 114.

Referring again to FIGS. 3-4 , in accordance with various embodiments,the layered structure 110 is formed from multiple layers 202, and thelayers are transparent to light, as noted above. The layered structure110 can be formed with as few as two layers 202, e.g., first and secondlayers, so long as each layer has disposed therein a plurality ofrespective QDs that have band gaps different than that of the QDs in theother of the two layers, to help enable the unique patterns and/orcombining of images (of different colors) in the resulting spectral map.In various embodiments, the layered structure 110 can also have morethan four layers 202, as will be appreciated, so long as the entirestructure 110 has least two different QDs of differing band gaps (tohelp produce a pattern having more than one color, in certainembodiment).

As is known, QDs are semiconductors that are not only tuned by theirband gap, but also change their color based on their size (as definedabove). In the exemplary embodiments of FIGS. 3-4 (as well as in FIGS.5-14 , discussed further herein), there are four different colored QDsrepresented, e.g.:

-   -   blue QDs 204, illustrated by circular dots containing the letter        “B” (or having a particular pattern indicated by the “key,” if        applicable)    -   green QDs 206, illustrated by circular dots containing the        letter “G” (or having the respective pattern as indicated in the        key, if applicable);    -   orange QDs 208, illustrated by circular dots containing the        letter “O” (or having the respective pattern as indicated in the        key, if applicable); and    -   red QDs 210, illustrated by circular dots containing the letter        “R” (or having the respective pattern as indicated in the key,        if applicable).

As is understood in the art, light (e.g., fluorescent light) that isemitted from the longer wavelength quantum dots (e.g., red, orange), mayor may not be re-absorbed by the shorter wavelength quantum dots (greenblue), depending on random orientation between layers. In addition, Forsimplicity all the dots in FIGS. 3-4 and 6A-14 are illustrated as havingthe same size, though in reality the actual sizes of QDs will differbased on color, as will be understood by those of skill in the art. Forexample, in some embodiments, QDs having a “larger” size (e.g., about5-6 nanometers (nm) diameter) emit longer wavelengths and are associatedwith colors such as orange (e.g. QD 208 a, 208 b) or red (e.g., QD 210a, 210 b). In contrast, “smaller” QDs (2-3 nm) emit shorter wavelengths,yielding colors like blue (e.g., Q D 204 a) and green (e.g., green QD206 a, 205 b). As will be appreciated, the specific colors may varydepending on the exact composition of the QD, and the colors shown inFIGS. 3-4 are illustrative and not limiting. Other layers 202 withdifferent colors of QD and/or a different color order, are possible, aswill be appreciated.

As shown in FIGS. 3-4 (and in other figures herein, as well), and asnoted above, the distribution of QDs (e.g., blue QDs 204, green QDs 206,orange QDs 208, red QDs 210) is configured to be randomly placed withina layer, with the color of QD varying by layer, where the randomdistribution within each layer enables the boundary between colors/typesof QDs to be somewhat indistinct or “blurry,” at boundaries betweenlayers, to enable some intentional, yet random, mixing of differentbandgap QDs along the boundary. This random mixing helps to improve theuniqueness and security of the PUF 108. A specific manufacturing processis described further herein in connection with FIG. 19 , to provide oneway to accomplish this.

Referring again to FIGS. 3-4 , for purposes of illustration, todifferentiate the types of QD in FIGS. 3-4 , rather than depictingcolors or varying the size of the dot, as noted above, the drawingsinstead indicate via the letter shown within each QD (i.e., G, B, G, O,or R), which type of QD it is, what color it emits, and what lightwavelength(s) to which it is responsive. It also will be understood thatthe exact shape of any given QD will not necessarily be circular orspherical; rather, in the Figures herein, circular shaped QD dots areshown for purposes of illustration and not limitation. In addition, theorder and arrangement of QD dot colors by layer 202 in FIGS. 3-4 (andelsewhere herein) is illustrative and not limiting. For example, inFIGS. 3-4 , the layers 202 are depicted so that the longest wavelengthlayer (layer 202 d), containing red QD dots 210, is positioned so thatlow frequency, longer wavelength light from an excitation source 112, isfirst passing through other layers first, before it reaches the layer202 d containing the longest wavelength QDs. However, this arrangementis not limiting.

In certain embodiments, the QDs used herein may be formed from any oneor more of a variety of semiconductor materials and/or compounds,including but not limited to: CdSe (cadmium selenide), PbS (leadsulphide), InP (indium phosphide), CuInS2, (copper indium disulphide),Cu2ZnSnS4 (copper zinc tin sulfur, also known as CZTS), and CsPbBr3(perovskite.). In certain embodiments, the QDs can be formed usingcolloidal quantum dots.

In certain embodiments, at least some or all of the PUF 108 is containedwithin a housing or enclosure (not shown), and/or under a cover such asinternal reflector 124, to further ensure that the PUF 108 is externallyunrevealed, and, in particular, that the structure configured togenerate the unique spectral pattern, is unrevealed and cannot be viewedwithout damaging the PUF so as to destroy or damage the uniquearrangement and scattering of QDs in the layers 202. QDs can be avast/different structure material size combination but compatible withsoldi solution/matrix implementation into the host without losing theirquantum properties. Further, as noted previously, in certainembodiments, because the PUF 108 is “externally unrevealed,” this meansthat the PUF 108 cannot be interrogated from outside as doing that typeof interrogation or challenge would result in an inaccurate (notmatching, not authentic) signature, because the authentic signature canonly be generated vie the internal, embedded excitation source(s) andpicked up by the internal, embedded detector 114. Furthermore,attempting to excite from the inside, without using the precisestructure of PUF 108 including the embedded detector 114 and excitationsource 112, means disturbing the active layer—thereby destroying it (atleast partially), which again results is an inaccurate/wrong signature.

Reference is now made briefly both to FIG. 4 (which depicts the layers202 in an exploded view, showing the colors of QD dots for each layer),and also to FIGS. 6A-6C, which are similar to FIG. 4 , but not onlyshows an exemplary exploded cross section view of the layered structure110 of FIG. 3 but also shows graphs for each layer the structure of FIG.3 , including directions of excitation and emission absorption vs.wavelength. FIG. 6A is a first exemplary exploded cross section view andset of graphs for the structure of FIG. 3 , including directions ofexcitation and emission and showing graphs of absorption vs. wavelength,showing how spectral signature varies with absorption of excitationsource. FIG. 6B is a second exemplary exploded cross section view andgraphs for the structure of FIG. 3 , including directions of excitationand emission and showing graphs of absorption vs. wavelength, showinghow spectral signature varies with absorption of excitation source. FIG.6A shows the graphs 632 a-638 a, for just what is seen at that layer,whereas FIG. 6B shows how the co-propagating light is added to theexcitation from preceding layers.

The combination of FIGS. 4 and 6A-6 b helps to show, in accordance withcertain embodiments herein, how spectral signature varies withabsorption of excitation source. In both FIGS. 4 and 6A-6 b, the arrowfor excitation source light 430 illustrates the direction of light froman excitation source 112 (not shown in FIG. 4 or 6A-6B, but shown, forexample, in FIG. 3 ). The excitation source light 430 gets absorbed byall layers 202 with decreasing intensity, depending on the overallattenuation and optical density of the overall layered structure 110.This means that, for example, if excitation source light 430 is comingfrom the “bottom” of layered structure 110, the light will be stronger(less attenuated) the closer the light is to the excitation source 112and will be less strong (more attenuated) at layers (e.g., layer 202 d)that are further away from the excitation source 112.

Referring now to FIG. 6A, the exploded cross sectional view of layers202 a, 202 b, 202 c, and 202 d, is similar to that described previouslyfor FIGS. 3 and 5 . The excitation source light path 430 first “sees”the shortest wavelength (blue) QD layer 202 a. The emissions from theblue QDs 204 will “escape” in the opposing direction (with respect toexcitation beam 430) direction and is sensed by detector array 114,which for clarity is not shown in this view, but can be located ateither the “bottom” of the PUF 108 (as shown in FIG. 3 and also in FIG.9A, discussed further herein) or even at the “top” of the PUF 108 (asshown in FIG. 11 , discussed further herein). The emissions that thedetector 114 detects for the “blue” QD layer 202 a, correspond to thosedirected by arrow 412 and are illustrated, for example, in graph 632 a,which shows, for an excitation source 112 having a wavelength 408nanometers (nm), a spectra for a blue emission wavelength having a peakat approximately 540 nm. The overall spectra for the PUF 108, at thispoint, is shown by the curve 643 a in graph 632 a.

The next layer the excitation source light path 430 sees emits at alonger wavelength (relative to blue) and is further away from the “blue”absorption edge, hence it will also “escape” in the opposite direction(e.g., the arrow 414), and will go through the first blue QD layer 202a, because that “blue” layer 202 a will see no absorption at the longerwavelength. This next longer wavelength-responsive layer is “green”layer 202 b, having green QDs 206. As shown in graph 634 a, the greenemission wavelength signal 644 a, having a peak at approximately 600 nm,is able to “emit through” the preceding “blue” layer 202 a in theopposing directions (shown by arrow 414). Thus, as shown in the graph634 a, the green emission wavelength signal 644 a gets through and theoverall spectra 645 a still also includes the emission from the “blue”QD layer 202 a.

Each subsequent layer that has progressively longer emission wavelengths(e.g., the yellow or orange layer 202 c, and then the red layer 202 d)will similarly emit through the preceding layers in the opposing (withrespect to excitation) direction, as shown by arrows 416 (for theyellow/orange layer) and 418 (for the red layer). Thus, the graph 636 aof FIG. 6A, for the yellow/orange layer shows that the spectra 646 a forthe yellow/orange emission similarly can get through the precedinglayers, as can the red emission wavelength 648 a, as shown in graph 638a.

In FIGS. 4 and 6B, the dual ended arrows (e.g., arrows 412, 414, 416,418), illustrate, in two dimensions, the co-propagating (arrow end thatis circled in FIG. 6B, which corresponds to the dotted end of the arrowin FIG. 4 ) and counter-propagating (arrow end that is not circled inFIG. 6B, which corresponds to the solid end of the arrow in FIG. 4 )direction of light. That is, light in the co-propagating direction (withrespect to excitation source) by the circled portions of the arrows 412,414, 416) is adding to excitation from each preceding (shorterwavelength) layer to the subsequent longer wavelength layer. Thus, asseen in graph 634 b (which shows the spectra at layer 202 b), the blueemission spectra 642 c (from preceding layer 202 a) is added to theemission spectra from the green layer 202 b (i.e., the emission labeledas 644 b green). Similarly, for layer 202 c (yellow/orange), the graph636 b shows the green emission 644 b added to the orange/yellow emission646 b. And, finally, for red layer 202 d, the yellow/orange emissionspectra 646 b_1 is added to the red emission spectra 648 b of the redlayer 202 d.

Those of skill in the art will appreciate, however, that in certainembodiments, the co-propagating direction of light will travel inmultiple directions (e.g., over an entire spherical volume, i.e., 27Lsteridians). Consider, briefly, FIG. 13 , which is an exemplaryillustration of a non-imaging detecting phenomenon associated with thestructure of FIG. 2 , in accordance with one embodiment. FIG. 13 showsthe layered structure 110 of FIG. 3 in cross section, with a pluralityof excitation sources 112 a-112 n and a plurality of detectors 516 a-516n, as well as a layered structure that includes blue QDs 204, green QDs206, orange QDs 208, and red QDs 210 (e.g., in accordance with the key).For the view of FIG. 13 , in a non-imaging nearfield, each pixel of thedetector 114 will see “rays” over 27 steradians—contribution from“everywhere” (meaning all pixels that are emitting), weighted in signalintensity based on relative displacement of an emitting volume element(i.e., a QD) from a pixel position of the detector 114. Removing volumeelement 1302 of certain dimension results in equivalent effective changethat is much larger than physical size for the detector 114 because ofthe avalanche based spectral/intensity weighted contributions from alarge solid angle field of view subtend afforded by the non-imagingdetector array configuration.

Referring again to the simplified two-dimensional representation ofFIGS. 4 and 6A, the arrow 412 corresponds to “blue” light emissions,arrow 414 corresponds to “green” light emissions, arrow 416 correspondsto “orange” light emissions, and arrow 418 corresponds to “red” lightemissions. Referring particularly to FIG. 6B, it can be seen that forthree of the dual ended arrows 412, 414, 416, each respective arrow hasone half shown solid (the half pointing to the “bottom” of the layeredstructure 110) and the other half shown with dotted lines (and circledwith a respective oval 620, 622, 626) and pointing to the “top” oflayered structure 110. The solid line portion shows directly emittedlight from the QDs (after excitation source 112 directly impinges onthem, in the direction of arrow for excitation source light 430). Thedotted line portions of the respective blue arrow 412, green arrow 414,and orange arrow 416, each show the respective direction ofco-propagated light (light that is being directed in other directionswithin the layered structure 110, which will undergo multiplereflections and scattering within the layered structure 110), withrespect to the excitation source 112. In particular, as shown in FIG. 6B(and as discussed above in connection with the graphs on in FIGS. 6A and6B), the co-propagated light portions indicated by ovals 620, 622, 626add to the excitation from each preceding (shorter wavelength) layer toeach subsequent longer wavelength layer.

As an example, in the example embodiment of FIG. 6A-6B, assume, ingraphs 632-640, an excitation source 112 provides light at exemplaryexcitation wavelength of 408 nm, corresponding to an excitation LED inthe “blue” light range and a “higher” frequency (e.g., 735 terahertz(THz)). Each graph 632-638 shows the additional contribution to theoverall spectra (viewed at detector 114, which would be at the “bottom”of the layered structure 110 as per FIG. 3 ), as added at each layer202, by that layer 202, and helps to show how the co-propagatingemission (shown as the “dotted” end of the arrow) is added to theemission from each preceding layer. The dotted fluorescence/emissionpropagation directions co-propagating with the excitation sourcedirection (upwards) will see significantly higher attenuation/absorptionas compared to the downward propagating solid arrows since in thiscounter—propagating direction (with respect to excitation source), eachlonger emission wavelength band will see minimal absorption though thepreceding (closer to the bottom) QD layers. This is enabled bysequentially adding top layers with QDs of incrementally longer emissionbandgap wavelengths. As will be understood, absorbed light seesattenuation as it propagates all the way through the composite layerstructure 110, as does emitted light, and the varying attenuationdepends on which direction the absorbed/emitted light travels, driven byoptical density, signal strength, etc. In addition, it will beunderstood that the illustrations in FIG. 6 help to illustrate thedirectionality of the absorbed and/or emitted light.

If the excitation source light 430 is at 408 nm, in the exemplaryembodiment of FIG. 6B, the first emitted light 642 a arises from the“blue” QDs 204 in first layer 202 a and has an emission wavelength of540 nm within layer 202 a, as shown in graph 632 b, which is a graph ofwavelength (x-axis) vs absorption (optical density) (y-axis). The graph632 b of FIG. 6B represents just what is happening and visible withinthe first layer 202 a, when the excitation source light 430 hits thatlayer 202 a, to produce first emitted light spectra 642 a. That is, ifthe layered structure 110 were viewed just from the perspective of layer202 a, from a detector 114 located at the “bottom” (as in FIG. 3 ), thegraph 632 shows that what would be visible as spectra is both theexcitation wavelength spectra signal 643 (at about 408 nm) and the firstemission 642 a from the blue QDs, at about 540 nm. Thus, in graph 632 b,the absorption spectra vs wavelength of the graph 632 is just for the“blue” layer 202 a.

Similarly, the graph 636 b shows what is visible at layer 202 b, lookingback to the same detector 114 located at the “bottom” of the layeredstructure 110 if the layered structure 110 were viewed from thatperspective, with both the second emitted light spectra 644 a from thesecond to the bottom layer (layer 202 b), at an emission wavelength of600 nm, being part of the spectra, as well as the first emitted light(shown by solid line 642) from the QD dots of the blue layer 202 a. Thegraph 636 b shows that the first emitted light 642 c blue (at 540 nm) isa dotted line, to indicate that it is in the spectra as a result ofbeing co-propagated light, and the second emitted light spectra 644 a,is at 600 nm, from the “green” QDs 206 a, of layer 202 b, and appears asa solid line 644 b. The graph 634 b thus shows that the spectra from theblue QDs 204 and the green QDs 306 are both visible when viewed from thebottom of layered structure 110, towards second layer 202 b.

The curves depicting the bandgap edge of each of the QDs depicted inthis example are depicted as 643 (for blue), 645 (for green), 647 (foryellow) and 649 (for red). The bandgap edges shown by these curves moveprogressively towards the longer wavelength as the QD bandgapprogressively increases in wavelength (decrease in frequency) going fromred—yellow—green and blue, respectively. The graph 634 shows that theexcitation at 408 nm will see absorption for all 4 bandgapscorresponding to the four notional colors used in this example ensuringall 4 different bandgap QDs will be excited (shown as spectral signal645 of graph 634). Each more adjacent to the bottom layer will generatestrong counterpropagating emission (solid arrows) with theco-propagating signal (dotted arrows) seeing significant attenuation inthe subsequent longer wavelength band gap layer, etc.

Continuing through the layers shown in FIG. 6B, the graph 646 shows thespectra seen at the third layer from the bottom (layer 202 c). Thesignal labeled as 646 b corresponds to the emission from theyellow/orange QDs 208 in the third layer and has an emission wavelengthof 620 nm. The co-propagating emission from the green QDs 206 in layer202 b is shown as the dotted signal 644, still at 600 nm. However, theco-propagating emissions from the blue QDs 204 (i.e., emissions at 540nm) of the first layer 202 a, is now part of the combined signal 647 b.Thus, if a detector 114 were looking only at the spectra at the layer202 c, from the perspective of the layer 202 c, the only visible spectrawould be the green co-propagating emission 644 b at 600 nm and theorange emission 646 b; the blue emission is no longer. When the signalis combined, blue excitation from the blue QDs of layer 202 a, which wasa solid line 642 in graph 632 and was a dotted line 642 b in graph 634,is now, in graph 636.

FIG. 7 is another exemplary cross section view of the layered structure110 of FIG. 3 , including additional graphs demonstrating how thespectral signature is directionally unique. In viewing the “top” of thelayered structure 110, top excitation 706 “punches” through to last“blue” layer 204 having QDs with a “blue” bandgap. The longestwavelength (red) layer 202 d and subsequent longer wavelength layers(layer 202 c with orange QDs, then layer 202 b with green QDs) haveemissions that also pass through unobstructed to the lowest layer 202 a,where they will be picked up by a detector 114 (not shown) disposed nearthe bottom of the layered structure 110. The graph with the curvelabeled as 708, in FIG. 7 , shows the relative intensities of each colorQD and that emissions from each QD layer are visible to a detector 114at the bottom.

However, in FIG. 7 , the “bottom” excitation 702 produces a differentspectral result. Attempting to excite and detect fluorescence spectra ofthe QDs, in the opposite, way results in most of excitation 702 beingabsorbed by the shortest wavelength QD layer (e.g., the blue QD layer202 a). Consequently, other longer wavelength emissions (e.g., thosewith longer wavelengths than blue, such as green, yellow/orange, andred), would see commensurately significantly higher attenuation, andthus be less visible in the output spectra. This is shown in the curve704, which shows that the fluorescence spectra of the blue QD layer 202a (the leftmost sub signal in the graph containing curve 704, whichleftmost sub signal is labeled as 705) dominates the spectral intensitygraph. This, the resultant spectral intensity distribution is vastlydifferent in the curve 704 vs 708, demonstrating that the spectralsignature is directionally unique. In addition, a comparison of thecurve 708 in FIG. 7 with the curve 704 in FIG. 7 , helps to convey thespectrally lopsided difference of the resultant cumulative emissionspectra signal in the two opposing directions.

As a further variation, FIG. 8 is a graph 720 showing a spectralsignature of the structure of FIG. 3 if it were altered to have itslongest wavelength layer at an innermost layer position, in accordancewith one embodiment. The graph 720 of FIG. 8 show an emission spectrumfor an embodiment where the longest wavelength layer is at an innermostlayer position, with a direction of impinging light, from an excitationsource, shown via arrow 722. This graph 720 shows that emissions for alllayers are visible in the spectral signal profile.

To further illustrate the directionality of the spectral image,reference is now made to FIGS. 9A-12 , which show several configurationsof the layered structure 110, detector 114, and excitation sources 112.

FIG. 9A is a first perspective exploded view of an embodiment of the PUF108 of FIG. 2 , with both detector 114 on the bottom and excitationsources 112 on the bottom, and internal reflector 124, on top, showingexcitation from a first direction and co-propagating directions ofemissions from QDs, in accordance with one embodiment. The embodiment ofFIG. 9A is similar to that of FIGS. 3 and 5 , discussed above. Thearrows 802-810 show directions of light from excitation sources 112a-112 e which direct light, in this example, in the direction shown byexcitation source arrow 430 b., through the layered structure 110. Arrow850 shows generally a direction of light “reflected” off reflector 124.In addition, as noted previously in connection with FIG. 6B (but forclarity not depicted here), there will be light from the illuminated QDsin both a co-propagated and counter-propagated direction.

FIG. 9B is a portion of a first exemplary spectral readout pattern fromthe arrangement of FIG. 9A, as viewed from the detector 114 at the“bottom” of the layered structure 110 (e.g., as shown as part of support120), where the exemplary spectral pattern 1000 c (which is illustrativeand not limiting, shows, for example, a first “rainbow” pattern ofemission spectra in pattern, where this spectra is associated with theco-propagating light pattern of FIG. 9A. For example, the light path 802may, for example, produce a portion of the spectral pattern within theoverall pattern 100 c, such as the column corresponding to red spectra810 b, orange spectra 808 a, and green spectra 806 a. This is of course,merely exemplary.

FIG. 10A is a second perspective exploded view 900 of an embodiment of aPUF 108, with a detector 114 on the bottom and excitation sources 112a-112 e on the top, showing excitation from a first direction andco-propagating directions of emissions from QDs, in accordance with oneembodiment. FIG. 10A illustrates first excitation source light 430 afrom a first direction from the top of the layered structure 110 down,and co-propagating directions of emission (shown by the dotted linearrow paths 902, 904, 906, 908, 910) pointing towards the “bottom” layer202 a). In FIG. 10A, the co-propagated emissions of light 902, 904, 906,908, 910, and any light emitted by QDs that are impinged upon by firstexcitation source light 430 a, are detected by detector 114 which islocated on the “bottom” of the structure. That is, the structure of FIG.10A differs from the embodiment of FIG. 3 , because in FIG. 10 , thedetector 114 on bottom and excitation source(s) 112 a-112 e on top,whereas with FIG. 3 , both detector 114 and excitation source(s) 112,were on the bottom.

FIG. 10B is a portion of an exemplary second spectral readout 1000 afrom the arrangement of FIG. 10A, as viewed from the detector 114 at the“bottom” of the layered structure 110 (detector on bottom), in the formof a readout from the detector, where the spectral readout 1000 a has afirst column of readout pixels 1010 a, a second column 1012 a, a thirdcolumn 1014 a, a fourth column 1016 a, and a fifth column 1018 a. Assumein this embodiment, that the first column of readout pixels 1010 acorresponds the detector 114 picking up emissions arising fromexcitation 430 a and co-propagated light indicated by dotted line arrowpath 902. As FIG. 10A shows, the co-propagated light in dotted linearrow path 902 passes through a red QD dot, an orange QD dot, a green QDdot, and a blue QD dot. Because the excitation 430 a, in this example,is high frequency LED light (e.g., about 408 nm wavelength), this highfrequency emission is able to cause all of these types of QD dots toemit. That is, this corresponding spectral pattern detected by firstcolumn of readout pixels 1010 a includes corresponding red, orange,green, and blue pixels, because all corresponding QD dots impinged uponby the light path 902, are able to emit after being stimulated by thehigh frequency first excitation source light 430 a. Thus, the red QD dotin path 902 emits red light that will still be seen at detector 114,even though it is “behind” the other QD dots along the path 902.Further, if the detector 114 is viewing emitted light from the “bottom”of the layered structure 110, as in FIG. 10A, all of the colors (blue,green, orange, red) can be visible in the spectrum shown in the firstcolumn of readout pixels 1010 a, because blue QD dots will not absorblight from lower frequency, longer wavelength dots like green, orangeand red dots. Thus, those other colors, along with blue will be“visible” to the detector 114, if the detector is at the “bottom” oflayered structure 110, even if the intensity may be less strong for QDsmore distant from the detector 114.

Similarly, the second column 1012 a on the spectral readout 1000 acorresponds to the light path 904, which is shown as passing through anorange QD dot and a green QD dot, in that order. Similarly, the thirdcolumn 1014 a on the spectral readout 1000 a corresponds to the lightpath 906, which is passing through a red QD dot, orange QD dot, blue QDdot, and green QD dot, in that order, and the spectral readout 1000 amatches that. Likewise, the fourth column 1016 a, corresponds to lightpath 908, which passes through a green QD dot and blue QD dot, etc.

FIG. 11 is a second perspective exploded view 1100 of another embodimentof a PUF 108, with a detector 114 on the top and excitation sources 112a-112 e on the bottom, showing second excitation 430 b from a firstdirection and co-propagating directions of emissions from QDs (via pathsof light 1102, 2204, 2206, 1108, 1110), in accordance with oneembodiment. FIG. 11 illustrates second excitation 430 b from a seconddirection from the bottom of the layered structure 110 up, andco-propagating directions of emission (shown by the dotted line arrowsfor paths of light 1102, 1104, 1106, 1108, 1110) pointing towards the“top” layer 202 d). In FIG. 11 , the co-propagated emissions of paths oflight 1102, 1104, 1106, 1108, 1110, and any light emitted by QDS thatare impinged upon by second excitation 430 b, are detected by detector114 which is located on the “top” of the structure. That is, thestructure of FIG. 11 differs from that of FIG. 3 because it has detector114 on top and excitation source(s) 112 a-112 e on bottom

FIG. 12 is an exemplary spectral readout 1000 b from the arrangement ofFIG. 11 , as viewed from a detector 114 at the “top” of the structure(detector on top, in the form of a readout from the detector 114, wherethe spectral readout 1000 b shows a pattern that depicts the pattern ofreadout pixels that correspond to the light that gets through to thedetector 114, with the arrangement of FIG. 11 . It can be seen that thespectral readout 1000 b is very different than that of 1000 a, for thesame structure (just like the spectral readout 1000 c differs from boththat of 1000 a and that of 1000 b). For example, for the path of light1102, directed towards detector 114, in FIG. 11 , it can be seen thatthe path of light 1102 flows from layer 202 a, through a blue QD dot,then a green QD dot in layer 202 b, then an orange QD dot in layer 202c, and then a red QD dot in the transition zone between layer 202 c and202 d. However, in the corresponding column containing red pixel 1010 bof FIG. 12 , the only spectral image that is visible is the red pixel1010 b, because the light from the blue, green, and orange QD dots, inthe path of light 1102, are absorbed into the red QD dot, which is at alonger wavelength and lower frequency. Thus, the only QD dotillumination visible in the spectral image is the red pixel 1010 b.

FIG. 14 is a second exemplary cross-section view 1400 of anotherembodiment of the PUF 108 FIG. 2 , showing the PUF 108 implemented viaat least partially embedding a three dimensional structure 1402 (e.g.,which can be a device, such as an electronic device, or any otherobject) within a dispersion medium 1406 (e.g. a heterogeneous dispersionmedium) that also has QDs embedded therein, in accordance with oneembodiment. The QDs 1408 (shown as the small circular dots 1408 in FIG.14 ) are configured to comprise a plurality of various band-gap typesand can be excited via one or more excitation sources 112. A structure1402, such as a semiconductor chip, integrated circuit, etc., hascoupled to it a detector 114, such as a complementary metal oxidesemiconductor (CMOS) sensor array. The QDs 1408 are disposed within aheterogeneous QD dispersion medium, which can be any optically cleartype of material similar to that described for use on layers 202, asdescribed elsewhere herein.

In the device of FIG. 14 , when the excitation sources 112 emit light,such as the short wavelength excitation light shown in FIG. 14 , thelight impinging on the QDs 1408 causes each QD to emit a colored light,in the same manner as discussed previously. The detector 114 picks upthe colored light and converts it to an appropriate optical transferfunction. Because the embodiment of FIG. 14 is entirely embedded withinthe heterogeneous QD dispersion medium 1406, the spectral pattern of thePUF 108 is not revealed. In addition, as noted previously, even QDs 1408that are distant from the excitation source 112 and/or the detector 115,have emissions that can impact each other, where the emissions can alsoreach the detector even going around corners, e.g., of three-dimensionalstructure 1402.

In both the embodiment of FIG. 14 as well as the previously describedembodiments of FIGS. 2-13 , the detector 114 and excitation sources 112are configured so that they are in operable communication with one ormore external controls and/or external systems that are configured toprovide challenges/controls to operate the excitation sources 112 and toprovide a way to receive or interpret a response from the detector 114.For example, in some embodiments, there may be wiring (not shown) orother connections to the detector 114 and/or the excitation sources 112.In embodiments such as those of FIGS. 3-13 , where the PUF 108 can beimplemented with a support 120, the connections to the external controlsand/or communications to receive sensor data, can be implemented usingthe support 120, such as by wiring traces on that support structure, byone or more conductive via holes in the support 120 permittingelectrical connections, etc. electrical connections In some embodiments,the view of the embodiment FIG. 14 represents a “top down”cross-sectional view, wherein the detector 114, excitation sources 112,and the device 1402 (e.g., an integrated circuit) are all directly orindirectly coupled to a circuit board or test fixture with thedispersion medium 1406 configured to encapsulate or coat the device1402, detector 114, and excitation sources 112, while still permittingoperable connections to the detector 114 and excitation source 112, aswill be understood in the art.

FIG. 15 is an example flowchart of a process 1500 for making a layeredstructure 110 similar to that of FIGS. 2-14 , in accordance with oneembodiment. A plurality of QDs is provided, comprising at least 1st, 2ndQDs that comprise at least 1st, 2nd types having 1st, 2nd (different)light absorbencies (block 1805). An initial layer (which can be a film)of optically clear medium (e.g., a polymer) is formed, such viadeposition of structure, spin casting, drop casting, injection, etc.,onto a surface and this structure is partially cured (block 1510), inaccordance with any cure method applicable to the optically clearmedium. Optionally, in certain embodiments, this layer can be directlyapplied to a support structure (e.g., support 120 as discussed herein).In certain embodiments, the structure formed via the process of FIG. 15is secured or affixed later to a support structure. In certainembodiments, the structure formed in the process of FIG. 15 isconfigured to be formed on or around a device, such as an integratedcircuit, where the resulting combined structure can later be coupled(including removably coupled) to a circuit board or test fixture.

In block 1515, a first plurality of a first type of QD are insertedrandomly into the first layer. There are many known ways to apply QDs toand into mediums, including but not limited to a lithography process, aprinting process, a three-dimensional (3-D) printing process, aninjection process, a polymerization process, an extrusion process, asolution-case process, etc., injection, and many uncontrolled processeswhich are configured to disperse QDs randomly, are usable in accordancewith embodiments herein. In block 1520, after the initial firstplurality of first type of QDs are randomly applied to the initiallayer, additional optically clear medium is applied and partially cured.At this point, if an exemplary structure such as that of FIG. 3 wereconsidered, this would have applied first layer 202 a and the blue QDs204, randomly dispersed. By doing a partial cure, that step enables theQDS from the next layer to intermix with those of the previous layer. Aswill be appreciated, partial curing advantageously ensures that eachsubsequent layer that is added will have different bandgap QDs;accordingly, with each subsequent sequential “partial curing, theprocess ensures that the result will be a quasi-heterogenous layering ofdifferent bandgap QDs. If, instead, all the QDs were intermixed, theresulting structure would not have a layer preferential resultant matrixarchitecture.

After partial cure of the additional (e.g., second) layer of opticallyclear medium is complete (block 1520), a second plurality of QDs areapplied, in a random orientation, to be dispersed within the secondlayer (block 1525). Because the layer applied in block 1520 was onlypartially cured, intermixing between the first type of QD (e.g., blue QD204 as in FIG. 3 ) and second type of QD (e.g., green QD 206 as in FIG.3 ) is possible. In block 1530, additional optically clear medium isapplied. If the layered structure 110 is to be complete, the methodmoves to block 1540 for applying final layer and/or a cover, and finalcure. However, if additional layers are to be applied, steps 1515-1530are repeated for each layer (block 1535). Advantageously, the additionallayers, in certain embodiments, are additional different types of QDs(e.g., as shown in and described herein in connection with FIG. 3 (e.g.,orange QDs and red QDs). In certain embodiments, the layers can beconstructed and arranged so that they progress from shorter wavelengthcolors to longer wavelength colors, as shown with FIG. 3 .

When all of the layers of the structure are complete and fully cured(block 1540), the resulting structure can be coupled to a supportstructure, the detector protective window 122, the internal reflector124, a component, a circuit board, etc., including, in some embodiments,a support 120 as shown in FIG. 3 (block 1545). In some embodiments, asnoted previously, the entire layered structure 110 is formed directlyonto the support starting at block 18110. In some embodiments, theprocesses of blocks 1805-1840 can be applied directly around asemiconductor device, e.g., as shown in FIG. 14 . In some embodiments,as noted above, the entire layered structure 110, as well as detector114 and excitation sources 112, are formed onto a three-dimensionalobject, device, or system, e.g., as a coating or film.

FIG. 16 is an example flowchart 1600 of a process for using a structuresimilar to that of FIGS. 2-14 , for authentication and/or verification,in accordance with one embodiments. The structure will embody a PUF 108as discussed herein. In block 1605 a structure, e.g., as shown in FIGS.3-14 and/or constructed in accordance with FIG. 15 , is provided.Optionally (e.g., if the PUF is part of a challengeable configuration),a database containing expected responses from the PUF 108, such as anexpected signature, or digital fingerprint is provided (block 1610). Inblock 1615, optionally (e.g., if the PUF is part of a challengeableconfiguration) a processor is provided (e.g., as shown and described inFIG. 2 ), where the processor is configured for sending a challenge tothe PUF 108 and for receiving a response from the PUF 108. Alternately,or in addition to the processor, in block 1615, in certain embodiments,a PUF-enabled entity is provided, where the PUF-enabled entity isconfigured to use the PUF output as part of its operation. For example,in certain embodiments, a PUF-enabled entity may be configured to usethe PUF output as an access token or key to access certain functions orfeatures, whether on the PUF-enabled entity itself or in other devicesor system. A PUF-enabled entity may be configured to use the PUF outputas an encryption key (or as a seed for an encryption key) forcommunication with other entities. Those of skill in the art willappreciate that PUF outputs may have many applications, especially aspart of verification, and these examples are illustrative and notlimiting. In block 1620, an excitation is applied to the PUF 108, viaone or more excitation sources. Because the excitation sources, incertain embodiments, are embedded into the PUF, the excitation isconsistently applied from a fixed, stable, and/or predetermined angleand location, helping to ensure a consistent PUF response forcomparisons.

In block 1625, a spectral signature is received, the spectral signature,consisting of emissions from the two or more layers containing two ormore different band-gap QDs. In certain embodiments, the spectralsignature is received from a detector 114 or sensor, such as a CMOSdetector, which is embedded within the PUF 108 and/or coupled to the PUF108. In block 1630, the spectral signature optionally, in certainembodiments, is converted to a digital fingerprint or otherrepresentation, if necessary for use in block 1635. In certainembodiments (e.g., challenge-response environments), the spectralsignature is converted to a form where it can be part of a comparison tothe expected response from that PUF in the database of expectedresponses. In certain embodiments, the conversion of block 1630 involvesturning the spectral signature into a representation that is usable byanother system.

In block 1635, a check is made to see if the spectral signature responsefrom the PUF passes a verification operation, by determining if thespectral signature response from the PUF satisfies one or morepredetermined conditions. The one or more predetermined conditions canvary, in certain embodiments, depending on the environment in which thePUF is operating. For example, in certain embodiments where the PUF isused in a challenge-response environment, the predetermined conditioninvolves determining whether the spectral signature (whether by itselfor converted into a desired representation) matches what is expectedfrom that PUF (e.g., does a digital signature from the PUF match acorresponding signature stored in the database). In embodiments wherethe PUF is providing output to a PUF enabled entity, the predeterminedcondition involves checking the spectral signature (whether by itself orconverted into a desired representation) to see if the PUF signature isusable by the PUF enabled entity. For example, in some embodiments, the“passing” verification at block 1635 means that the PUF enabled entityis able to use the PUF output as an access code to access another entity(where an entity can be a device, system, function, application, or evena physical entity such as a secure facility or location). In someembodiments, the “passing” verification at block 1635 means that a PUFoutput exists at all (e.g., where non-authentic subsystems or structuresmay not even have a PUF included in it as all). If the answer is YES atblock 1635, then the device or structure containing the PUF isauthenticated or verified. If the answer is NO, then the device orstructure containing the PUF is not authenticated or verified.

The above described embodiments have provided a PUF that incorporateslayers of quantum dots (QDs), one or more built-in excitation sourcesfor stimulating the PUFs, and a built-in sensor for detecting emissionsfrom the quantum dots, where the entire operation is configured andconstructed to be externally unrevealed. In certain embodiments, PUFsproduced in accordance with the descriptions above provide ultra-highand increased entropy, and, hence, uniqueness, over known structures. Incertain embodiments, the PUFs produced in accordance with the abovedescriptions enable a non-reversible spectral signature. In certainembodiments, PUFs can be created that provide one or more of thefollowing advantageous features:

-   -   Interrogation direction and angle specific spectral intensity        fingerprint generation    -   Unique non-externally observable spectral signature enabled by        asymmetric optical transfer function.    -   Physical random distribution/entropy increase which can be >˜100        fold as compared to current state of the art autonomous        architectures    -   Extremely low SWaP/footprint of excitation source, sensing        volume, and sensor for truly self-contained robust deployment to        chip level scale geometries    -   Intractable to observe and falsify in useful timelines    -   Robust and inexpensive to implement based on common high        technology readiness level (TRL) components

FIG. 17 is a block diagram of an exemplary computer system 1700 usablewith at least some of the systems and apparatuses of FIGS. 1-16 , inaccordance with one embodiment. Reference is made briefly to FIG. 17 ,which shows a block diagram of a computer system 1700 usable with atleast some embodiments. The computer system 1700 also can be used toimplement all or part of any of the methods, equations, and/orcalculations described herein.

As shown in FIG. 17 , computer system 1700 may include processor/centralprocessing unit (CPU) 1702, volatile memory 1704 (e.g., RAM),non-volatile memory 1706 (e.g., one or more hard disk drives (HDDs), oneor more solid state drives (SSDs) such as a flash drive, one or morehybrid magnetic and solid state drives, and/or one or more virtualstorage volumes, such as a cloud storage, or a combination of physicalstorage volumes and virtual storage volumes), graphical user interface(GUI) 1720 (e.g., a touchscreen, a display, and so forth) and inputand/or output (I/O) device 1708 (e.g., a mouse, a keyboard, etc.).Non-volatile memory 1706 stores, e.g., journal data 1704 a, metadata1704 b, and pre-allocated memory regions 1704 c. The non-volatilememory, 1706 can include, in some embodiments, an operating system 1714,and computer instructions 1712, and data 1716. In certain embodiment,the non-volatile memory 1706 is configured to be a memory storinginstructions that are executed by a processor, such as processor/CPU1702. In certain embodiments, the computer instructions 1717 areconfigured to provide several subsystems, including a routing subsystem1717A, a control subsystem 1717 b, a data subsystem 1717 c, and a writecache 1717 d. In certain embodiments, the computer instructions 1717 areexecuted by the processor/CPU 1702 out of volatile memory 1704 toimplement and/or perform at least a portion of the systems and processesshown in FIGS. 1-16 . Program code also may be applied to data enteredusing an input device or GUI 1717 or received from I/O device 1708.

The systems, architectures, and processes of FIGS. 1-16 are not limitedto use with the hardware and software described and illustrated hereinand may find applicability in any computing or processing environmentand with any type of machine or set of machines that may be capable ofrunning a computer program and/or of implementing a radar system(including, in some embodiments, software defined radar). The processesdescribed herein may be implemented in hardware, software, or acombination of the two. The logic for carrying out the methods discussedherein may be embodied as part of the system described in FIG. 16 . Theprocesses and systems described herein are not limited to the specificembodiments described, nor are they specifically limited to the specificprocessing order shown. Rather, any of the blocks of the processes maybe re-ordered, combined, or removed, performed in parallel or in serial,as necessary, to achieve the results set forth herein.

Processor/CPU 1702 may be implemented by one or more programmableprocessors executing one or more computer programs to perform thefunctions of the system. As used herein, the term “processor” describesan electronic circuit that performs a function, an operation, or asequence of operations. The function, operation, or sequence ofoperations may be hard coded into the electronic circuit or soft codedby way of instructions held in a memory device. A “processor” mayperform the function, operation, or sequence of operations using digitalvalues or using analog signals. In some embodiments, the “processor” canbe embodied in one or more application specific integrated circuits(ASICs). In some embodiments, the “processor” may be embodied in one ormore microprocessors with associated program memory. In someembodiments, the “processor” may be embodied in one or more discreteelectronic circuits. The “processor” may be analog, digital, ormixed-signal. In some embodiments, the “processor” may be one or morephysical processors or one or more “virtual” (e.g., remotely located or“cloud”) processors.

Various functions of circuit elements may also be implemented asprocessing blocks in a software program. Such software may be employedin, for example, one or more digital signal processors,microcontrollers, or general-purpose computers. Described embodimentsmay be implemented in hardware, a combination of hardware and software,software, or software in execution by one or more physical or virtualprocessors.

Some embodiments may be implemented in the form of methods andapparatuses for practicing those methods. Described embodiments may alsobe implemented in the form of program code, for example, stored in astorage medium, loaded into and/or executed by a machine, or transmittedover some transmission medium or carrier, such as over electrical wiringor cabling, through fiber optics, or via electromagnetic radiation. Anon-transitory machine-readable medium may include but is not limited totangible media, such as magnetic recording media including hard drives,floppy diskettes, and magnetic tape media, optical recording mediaincluding compact discs (CDs) and digital versatile discs (DVDs), solidstate memory such as flash memory, hybrid magnetic and solid-statememory, non-volatile memory, volatile memory, and so forth, but does notinclude a transitory signal per se. When embodied in a non-transitorymachine-readable medium and the program code is loaded into and executedby a machine, such as a computer, the machine becomes an apparatus forpracticing the method.

When implemented on one or more processing devices, the program codesegments combine with the processor to provide a unique device thatoperates analogously to specific logic circuits. Such processing devicesmay include, for example, a general-purpose microprocessor, a digitalsignal processor (DSP), a reduced instruction set computer (RISC), acomplex instruction set computer (CISC), an application specificintegrated circuit (ASIC), a field programmable gate array (FPGA), aprogrammable logic array (PLA), a microcontroller, an embeddedcontroller, a multi-core processor, and/or others, includingcombinations of one or more of the above. Described embodiments may alsobe implemented in the form of a bitstream or other sequence of signalvalues electrically or optically transmitted through a medium, storedmagnetic-field variations in a magnetic recording medium, etc.,generated using a method and/or an apparatus as recited in the claims.

For example, when the program code is loaded into and executed by amachine, such as the computer of FIG. 17 , the machine becomes anapparatus for practicing one or more of the described embodiments. Whenimplemented on one or more general-purpose processors, the program codecombines with such a processor to provide a unique apparatus thatoperates analogously to specific logic circuits. As such ageneral-purpose digital machine can be transformed into a specialpurpose digital machine. FIG. 17 shows Program Logic 1724 embodied on acomputer-readable medium 1720 as shown, and wherein the Logic is encodedin computer-executable code thereby forms a Computer Program Product1722. The logic may be the same logic on memory loaded on processor. Theprogram logic may also be embodied in software modules, as modules, oras hardware modules. A processor may be a virtual processor or aphysical processor. Logic may be distributed across several processorsor virtual processors to execute the logic.

In some embodiments, a storage medium may be a physical or logicaldevice. In some embodiments, a storage medium may consist of physical orlogical devices. In some embodiments, a storage medium may be mappedacross multiple physical and/or logical devices. In some embodiments,storage medium may exist in a virtualized environment. In someembodiments, a processor may be a virtual or physical embodiment. Insome embodiments, a logic may be executed across one or more physical orvirtual processors.

For purposes of illustrating the present embodiments, the disclosedembodiments are described as embodied in a specific configuration andusing special logical arrangements, but one skilled in the art willappreciate that the device is not limited to the specific configurationbut rather only by the claims included with this specification. Inaddition, it is expected that during the life of a patent maturing fromthis application, many relevant technologies will be developed, and thescopes of the corresponding terms are intended to include all such newtechnologies a priori.

The terms “comprises,” “comprising”, “includes”, “including”, “having”and their conjugates at least mean “including but not limited to”. Asused herein, the singular form “a,” “an” and “the” includes pluralreferences unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Variouselements, which are described in the context of a single embodiment, mayalso be provided separately or in any suitable subcombination. It willbe further understood that various changes in the details, materials,and arrangements of the parts that have been described and illustratedherein may be made by those skilled in the art without departing fromthe scope of the following claims.

Throughout the present disclosure, absent a clear indication to thecontrary from the context, it should be understood individual elementsas described may be singular or plural in number. For example, the terms“circuit” and “circuitry” may include either a single component or aplurality of components, which are either active and/or passive and areconnected or otherwise coupled together to provide the describedfunction. Additionally, terms such as “message” and “signal” may referto one or more currents, one or more voltages, and/or or a data signal.Within the drawings, like or related elements have like or relatedalpha, numeric or alphanumeric designators. Further, while the disclosedembodiments have been discussed in the context of implementations usingdiscrete components, including some components that include one or moreintegrated circuit chips), the functions of any component or circuit mayalternatively be implemented using one or more appropriately programmedprocessors, depending upon the signal frequencies or data rates to beprocessed and/or the functions being accomplished.

Similarly, in addition, in the Figures of this application, in someinstances, a plurality of system elements may be shown as illustrativeof a particular system element, and a single system element or may beshown as illustrative of a plurality of particular system elements. Itshould be understood that showing a plurality of a particular element isnot intended to imply that a system or method implemented in accordancewith the disclosure herein must comprise more than one of that element,nor is it intended by illustrating a single element that the anydisclosure herein is limited to embodiments having only a single one ofthat respective elements. In addition, the total number of elementsshown for a particular system element is not intended to be limiting;those skilled in the art can recognize that the number of a particularsystem element can, in some instances, be selected to accommodate theparticular user needs.

In describing and illustrating the embodiments herein, in the text andin the figures, specific terminology (e.g., language, phrases, productbrands names, etc.) may be used for the sake of clarity. These names areprovided by way of example only and are not limiting. The embodimentsdescribed herein are not limited to the specific terminology soselected, and each specific term at least includes all grammatical,literal, scientific, technical, and functional equivalents, as well asanything else that operates in a similar manner to accomplish a similarpurpose. Furthermore, in the illustrations, Figures, and text, specificnames may be given to specific features, elements, circuits, modules,tables, software modules, systems, etc. Such terminology used herein,however, is for the purpose of description and not limitation.

Although the embodiments included herein have been described andpictured in an advantageous form with a certain degree of particularity,it is understood that the present disclosure has been made only by wayof example, and that numerous changes in the details of construction andcombination and arrangement of parts may be made without departing fromthe spirit and scope of the described embodiments. Having described andillustrated at least some the principles of the technology withreference to specific implementations, it will be recognized that thetechnology and embodiments described herein can be implemented in manyother, different, forms, and in many different environments. Thetechnology and embodiments disclosed herein can be used in combinationwith other technologies. In addition, all publications and referencescited herein are expressly incorporated herein by reference in theirentirety. Individual elements of different embodiments described hereinmay be combined to form other embodiments not specifically set forthabove. Various elements, which are described in the context of a singleembodiment, may also be provided separately or in any suitablesub-combination. It should also be appreciated that other embodimentsnot specifically described herein are also within the scope of thefollowing claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A physically unclonable function (PUF) device, comprising: a first excitation source configured to be externally controllable to provide first light at a first frequency suitable for exciting quantum dots (QDs); a first layer of a first material having contained therein a first random distribution of first quantum dots (QDs) of a first type, disposed at a first plurality of random locations, wherein the first type of QDs are configured to generate a first color in response to being excited by the first excitation source; a second layer of a second material having contained therein a second random distribution of second QDs of a second type, disposed at a second plurality of random locations, wherein the second type of QDs are configured to generate a second color in response to being excited by the first excitation source, wherein the second color is different from the first color; and a detector fixedly attached to one of the first and second layers, the detector configured for detecting a least a first pattern of light emitted by at least one of the first QDs and the second QDs when excited by the first excitation source, wherein the detector is configured for providing an output indicative of the detected at least a first pattern of light; and wherein the excitation source is fixedly attached to one of the first and second layers.
 2. The PUF device of claim 1, wherein the detected first pattern of light has a first appearance if the detector is fixedly attached to the first layer and a second appearance if the detector is fixedly attached to the second layer, wherein the first and second appearance are different.
 3. The PUF device of claim 1, wherein the detected first pattern of light is unique to the PUF.
 4. The PUF device of claim 1, wherein there is a boundary between the first layer and the second layer and wherein there is an overlap of the first plurality of random locations and the second plurality of random locations, along the boundary.
 5. The PUF device of claim 1, wherein at least one of the first and second materials comprises a material that is configured to allow transmitted light to reach at least a portion of the respective QDs contained within that respective at least one of the first and second materials.
 6. The PUF device of claim 1, wherein the detector and the first excitation source are both fixedly coupled to the same one of the first and second layers.
 7. The PUF device of claim 1, wherein the detector is fixedly coupled to a different one of the first and second layers than the first excitation source.
 8. The PUF device of claim 1, further comprising a second excitation source configured to be externally controllable to provide second light at a second frequency suitable for exciting QDs.
 9. The PUF device of claim 1, wherein the first frequency corresponds to short-wavelength light.
 10. The PUF device of claim 1, further comprising a third layer of a third material having contained therein a third random distribution of third QDs of a third type, disposed at a third plurality of random locations, wherein the third type of QDs are configured to generate a third color in response to being excited by the first excitation source, wherein the third color is different than both the first color and the second color.
 11. The PUF device of claim 10, wherein the first, second, and third layers are constructed and arranged so that the second layer is disposed in between the first and third layers, and wherein the first type of QD is associated with a shorter wavelength of light than both the second type of QD and the third type of QD.
 12. The PUF device of claim 10, wherein the first, second, and third layers are constructed and arranged so that the second layer is disposed in between the first and third layers, and wherein the third type of QD is associated with a longer wavelength than both the first type of QD and the second type of QD.
 13. The PUF device of claim 10 wherein the first pattern of light comprises the first, second, and third colors.
 14. The PUF device of claim 1, wherein the first pattern of light comprises both the first color and the second color.
 15. The PUF device of claim 1, wherein the first excitation source, first layer, second layer, and detector are constructed and arranged so that the first light and first pattern of light are externally unrevealed.
 16. The PUF device of claim 1, wherein the detector is configured to determine a hash of the first pattern of light and to communicate the hash of the first pattern of light to an external system that is configured to determine if the hash of the first pattern of light matches a stored hash associated with the PUF device.
 17. A method of making a physically unclonable function (PUF) device, the method comprising: forming a layered structure by: providing a first layer of a first optically clear medium; infusing a first random distribution of first quantum dots (QDs) of a first type, disposed at a first plurality of random locations, into the first layer wherein the first type of QDs are configured to generate a first color in response to being excited by an excitation source; partially curing the first layer such that at least a first portion of the first QDs are fixed into at least a first portion of the first plurality of random positions and such that at least a second portion of the first QDs are not in a fixed position; applying a second layer of a second optically clear medium, over the first layer, after partial curing; infusing a second random distribution of second quantum dots (QDs) of a second type, disposed at a second plurality of random locations, into the second layer, wherein the second type of QDs are configured to generate a second color in response to being excited by the excitation source, wherein the second color is different than the first color, wherein the infusion of the second random distribution of second QDs is configured so that at least a third portion of the second random distribution of second QDs are intermingled with the second portion of the first QDs; curing the second layer to a degree sufficient to ensure that both the first QDs and second QDs are substantially fixed into position; operably coupling a detector and an excitation source to the layered structure so that the excitation source is configured to direct light to the first and second layers and so that the detector is configured to detect a pattern of light that arises from directing light at first and second QDs; and wherein the excitation source, first layer, second layer, and detector are constructed and arranged so that the light and the pattern of light are externally unrevealed.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the layered structure, detector and excitation source are constructed and arranged so that the pattern of light has a first appearance if the detector is fixedly attached to the first layer and a second appearance if the detector is fixedly attached to the second layer, wherein the first and second appearance are different.
 19. A method of verifying an article of manufacture, the method comprising: coupling to an article of manufacture a physically unclonable function (PUF) device that comprises: a built-in excitation source configured to be externally controllable to provide light at a frequency suitable for exciting quantum dots (QDs); a first layer of a first material having contained therein a first random distribution of first quantum dots (QDs) of a first type, disposed at a first plurality of random locations, wherein the first type of QDs are configured to generate a first color in response to being excited by light from the built-in excitation source; a second layer of a second material having contained therein a second random distribution of second QDs of a second type, disposed at a second plurality of random locations, wherein the second type of QDs are configured to generate a second color in response to being excited by light from the built-in excitation source, wherein the second color is different from the first color; and a built-in detector fixedly attached to one of the first and second layers, the detector configured for detecting a pattern of light emitted by at least one of the first QDs and the second QDs in response to the excitation source providing light, wherein the detector is configured for providing an output indicative of the detected pattern of light; wherein the PUF device is configured to convert the detected pattern of light into a second digital fingerprint; causing the built-in excitation source providing light to excite at least a portion of the first random distribution of first QDs and at least a portion of the second random distribution of second QDs; receiving from the PUF device, in response to the built-in excitation source providing light, a spectral signature; and verifying the article of manufacture if the spectral signature satisfies a predetermined condition.
 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the PUF device is configured so that the light and the pattern of light are externally unrevealed. 